In 1665, people in Oxford recognize Willis as “one of the learnedest and most famed physicians in the world.” He basically bought out the Angel Inn on High Street to start out a business with another Oxford physician and a surgeon. Wealthy people from out of town stopped by for treatment. This made him “the richest man in the county of Oxfordshire.” However, when it came for him to treat the poor patients, he treatment them without pay. He no longer traveled from town to town to treat people. Yet, one day he decided to leave Oxford and traveled to Warwickshire. He became a private physician to one of the noblest women in England. Lord Conway asked Willis to aid his wife, Anne who was frequently experiencing excruciating headaches. And so, Willis searched for possibilities that may have started her severe migraines. He interviewed her about her life to hope that her history might have the answers to her illness. He found her very intelligent because she was a brilliant philosopher that spent years probing the nature of the soul. She was unable to attend a university, and so she instead educated herself. She kept in touch with her brother who went to school in Cambridge to keep her up to date with the newest philosophies that he was learning in school. Then, she ended up encountering one of her brother’s mentor, the philosopher Henry More. More believed in the workings of the spirit rather than opinions of the brain. He was convince that “immaterial soul occupied the body as a temporary vessel” in which the soul would still live on afterlife. He is inspired by Descarte and Plato’s works. He agreed with Descarte that the soul cannot exert any physical force on its material body, and so only the spirit could make the universe move. He believe that human souls such as ghosts and even God can be extended like matter.
Anne Conway was eager to know more about Descarte. She asked More about Descarte to understand “how there could be a fully perfect being-God-without a fully imperfect being existing as well.” She was not satisfied with More’s explanation, and so both ended up discussing about philosophy and More’s own work. Later Anne suffered more on her headaches. In addition, she suffered a fever and vomited to the point where she stayed in her room for days on end. Yet, she still had the strength to talk with More to debate about the nature of matter, souls and God. As days gone by her family searched and summoned all of the best physicians they knew to aid their daughter‘s illness. At first William Harvey came to assist her. But, suffering from his own illness as well could no longer aid her. And so, others doctors came to her and prescribed her with such unusual treatments such opium, lead, and soap to the back of her head. At the end, those treatments did not affect her at all. And there were at times, she was nearly killed by obtaining mercury from Theodore de Mayerne. She even traveled to France and other places to cure her illness, yet no success in searching for a better cure. She was still overwhelmed in pain. After giving birth, her child contracted smallpox before his second birthday. Following that she also contracted the disease from him. She developed so many pain that she was too exhausted to move farther “I cannot dissemble as much as not to profess myself very weary of this condition.” In the end, Willis, too could not cure of her illness.
When Henry More sent out a message to her saying that a mystical healer named Franciscus Mercurius van Helmont may be able to cure her. She gave it another chance. However, his treatment did not work and she still continued to suffer. However, he found that “pain was nothing but my own life, excited or inflamed for my own good. I began to love the pain.” After she understood his ways of treatment, her illness gradually ceased as long as she kept her mind and soul with God. Her belief in God gave her strength to survive. Basically, “Van Helmont showed her how to find a meaning to her pain.” His philosophically teachings was so inspiring to her that she wrote an essay about him. She questioned “Why does the spirit or soul suffer so with bodily pain?” She says our body have a kind of congealed spirit. “The more physical something was, the more pain it will feel.” She died peacefully soon afterward. Van Helmont performed a final service for her.
Willis was still puzzled at Anne Conway’s illness on headaches. He continued to search for an explanation reflecting on the headaches that his other patients had suffered over the years. He envisioned how the nerves in the brain were outlined. And so, his speculation was that “If a patient’s blood was then stirred up, it might rush into the blood vessels in the head and pull apart the swollen nerves, creating pain.”
In April 1665, people in the streets of London were unexpectedly affected by a mysterious disease that will soon kill 400,000 Londoners. Infected fleas and rats ran the streets in which people became infected. As a result, people who were infected experienced raging fevers, hideously swollen lymph nodes, and in many cases a swift death. This disease was brought out by “… ships from Turkey brought the plague to the Netherlands, and a few months later, Dutch smugglers brought it to London.” The plague took over peoples’ lives and “…the city began to shut up the houses of sick, marking a cross on the door.” The wealthy physicians fled the city. The medical alchemists were the only ones left to cure the mysterious disease. However, they failed to search for a cure and fled the city. And so, Willis stepped up to help, he recommended that smoking tobacco may help to “ripen” the sores of plague victims. He tried all of the other treatments he could to at least reduce the symptoms, but none of his treatments worked and were useless.
Willis’s old friends from the Oxford circle came to visit him and discussed experiments that may help him understand the afflictions he had seen in his patients with convulsions. Willis and Lower were confronted with an outbreak that made children ill leaving them speechless, experienced deliriums, and nightmares. Children experienced convulsions that lasted for hours and many died as well. The dying children reminded Willis of his own eight children in which four had died by the mid-1660s. This made him more eager to find a way to cure this disease. However, he was unable to do so and instead got a permission from their parents to perform autopsy of the girl who died of the mysterious disease.
Willis knew that convulsions did not always kill their victims. For instance, a woman Willis later described as “an illustrious virgin” experienced terror that sent her into convulsions twice a day of everyday at eleven o’clock and five. However, on other times she was normal “so that none would ever suspect her to be sick..” And so, Willis began to search for new theories about epilepsy and other kinds of convulsions. In particular, in ancient Greece epilepsy was thought to occur when phlegm flowed out of the brain, which made the arms and legs flail. Galen thought that black bile or phlegm was the cause for epilepsy. Others like the Europeans thought that evil spirits caused epilepsy. Willis was convinced that “The idea that epileptics were possessed made sense: an epileptic seizure looked as if its victim was literally seized by a spirit and tossed around, only to be set free and returned to his former self.” He believe the spirits from the blood flowed peacefully from the brain into the nerves. Once they reached the end they “encountered sulfurous particles” which produced an explosion at the right time in the right muscles. Willis did not think that the “psychological life of his patients might have the power to produce hysteria.” And so, he instead thought of it as a matter of explosive chemistry that caused the deliriums, depressions, epileptic, and hysteria.
Critique:
Chapter 9 was interesting to read like the other chapters. This chapter was a quick read, because Zimmer mostly focused on Willis’s contributions during time of plague and he also traveled to many places such as Oxford, London, and Warwickshire to treat patients who were suffering from severe headaches, convulsions, epilepsy, and deliriums. Willis’s pathological explanation was intriguing and the treatment was designed to remove impurities from the body. Even though at times he failed to cure his patients, I admired how determined he was to search for other treatments.
As I read some of the treatments that most of the best physician have used to cure Anne Conway’s mysterious illness were I thought very unusual, amusing, and strange. In this case, mercury was given to her to treat her illness. I was surprised she still survived. From what we know, mercury is dangerous once obtain into our body and could instantly kill us. And, it was strange to think of treatments such as live frogs and poultices made of onion and white lily roots to cure a disease.
When Lower, Willis, and Boyle performed Wren’s injection experiment, they carried out several procedures to observe what the outcome will be. For instance, they wanted to know what happens when warm milk is injected into a dog, and the other experiment was when a dog is fed with another dog‘s blood. This I thought was pretty amusing and vividly explained as they carried out their experiments by using an injection. As a result, the dog died instantly when warm milk was injected. When they got to the part on transmitting blood of a dog to another dog, I imagined how they performed the procedure. That is, “they opened up the jugular vein of the dog and attached a pipe to it, which they then attached to the jugular of a second dog.” This made me wonder as to how many dog’s they’ve used in their experiments just so they could find out the outcome. But at least this helped them recognize the cause, and this made them aware on what not to use for a treatment on a sick person.
When Willis treated children who suffered from fevers that made them speechless, and experienced convulsions which lasted for hours, this reminded him of his own four children that died. He tried everything he could to search for a cure, because he understands how a parent feels like to loose a child or children since he was a father to eight children. I admired his determination and concern to everyone, that is, no matter what status you are in either poor or wealthy human being, he would try his best to cure a sick person even if it means traveling for him from one place to another. In my eyes, as I read about him, I thought of him as a truly dedicated physician, philosopher, and scientist who is willing to do anything he could to help a sick person get better.
Wednesday, October 31, 2007
Friday, October 26, 2007
Chapter 8 Critique
| Chapter 8 was a very interesting chapter. It was the time when we finally got to see the contributions of Willis to the field of neurobiology. For the thought concerning athetists being the root of the "Anatomy of the Brain" was denounced due to Willis's knowledge of the past condemnations of other scientists. The experimentations done on animals were not ethical, in my opinion, and I am glad that they could not have gotten away with them in this day and age. The institution of the Royal Society was rather interesting to me so I must concur with Ynaling. For so many people to set aside their personal, religious beliefs for the greater good and the advancement of science Europe and England, that is awesome. In this era, I too, doubt that this could be done since there is so much religious persecution going on and all religions do not believe in the existance of one God. when religion is involved (see page 183), many things get sticky and they become very unmanageable. There is a group that we all know of which is pretty impressive and that is the United Nations. For individuals from hundreds of countries to congregate together and try to work out the issues of world peace plus trying to ensure that the world lives in a certain kind of harmony is commendable. This works out because all religious beliefs are put aside (despite individual countries having disputes with one another). The discovery of the body's ability to make voluntary and involuntary movements is great. Willis is a phenomenal scientist and he never ceases to amaze me with what he can discover. I always await reading each chapter just to see what new things he will do. Anatomy of the Brain: http://www.theuniversityhospital.com/stroke/anatomy.htm Royal Society Information: www.royalsoc.ac.uk/ Information on the Circle of Willis: http://pathology.mc.duke.edu/neuropath/nawr/blood-supply.html |
Thursday, October 25, 2007
Chapter 8 Summary and Critique
Chapter Summary
In 1660, Charles I came back into power bringing with him, old royalists determined to return English life to its 1640’s splendor. Bishops and priests also returned back to the churches, while the Archbishop Laud, who was executed for treason, was replaced by Gilbert Sheldon, who appeared as one of the Church’s strictest enforcers. All books and pamphlets were to be approved by the new bishop, and any anonymous pamphleteers were hunted down and thrown into Jail. Although the puritan hold over England was being loosened, bishops and priests did not feel safe. The Quakers and other fanatic sects romped throughout England defying parliament and causing trouble – even “offering to burn parts of the Bible they found offensive.” Strong measures were not taken against the unruly Quakers, mainly due to the higher priority given to another problem – the prospect of atheism in England.
While King Charles did not deny the existence of God, his court was far from pious – bringing in French customs of “perfume, face paint, and syphilis.” As a result, men imitated women in their ways of perfumed, colorful clothing, long periwigs, and face paint. Charles also reestablished himself as the spiritual leader of England by reverting to his old ritual of curing the King’s Evil, receiving thousands of people kneeling before him to receive his touch.
In the mean time, Thomas Willis continued with good fortune. He had earned himself a scientific reputation with his book and paracelsist drugs. For his loyalty, he was rewarded by a job – professor of natural philosophy at Oxford University, where he taught new theories from abroad, and discussed his own anti-Aristotelian ideas. Willis also delved deeply into research, dissecting heads and using the microscopes designed by Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to look at the structure and circuitry of the nerves, something that other anatomists had not attempted before. During this time, Willis and Richard Lower, a physician, were able to understand that blood travels throughout the body in a circular pathway and to all parts of the brain, through a series of experiments with arteries of humans and a famous case of a spaniel.
Willis also disproved theories by famous philosophers such as Descartes and Aristotle, and unlike others in history, he had evidence to prove his theory. When injecting dye in arteries leading up to the brain, there was no trace of it in the ventricles, thereby disproving Descartes’s theory that the soul resided in the ventricles. He also disproved Descartes’s claim that the Pineal gland was special to humans, as it is found in other species as well. By linking lung and heart function to different parts of the nervous system, Willis also disproved Aristotle’s theory of voluntary and involuntary movement. One revolutionary theory he introduced was the relocation of the soul. He gave all importance to the brain, and not the heart.
Willis and his friends had finished their explorations and wished to publish their new, concise findings about the nervous system. In order to help them in this endeavor, the Royal Society for Promoting Natural Science was established. This elite society was filled with Virtuosi of all walks of life and all fields of the sciences. Although King Charles supported them with a royal charter, the Royal society was reminded to “pay for it in a currency of amusement and hard labor (184).” The Virtuosi worked together on many natural investigations and also wished to inform the public of their research and findings by appointing Christopher Wren, who shifted his responsibilities to Robert Hooke, to put together an entire book of pictures explaining their work - Macrophagia. Willis, Hooke, and Wren also published Anatomy of a Brain - a trilogy of specific structure and composure of the brain and the nervous system.
Critique
I was quite excited about this chapter, because I felt as though Carl Zimmer was leading me through Thomas Willis’s thought process, as he was able to discover and prove the existence and importance of the nervous system in the human body. Just like Harvey, Willis was able to provide strong basis for his theories. I especially appreciated the simplicity in the experiments he conducted as evidence. For instance something as simple as a dye injected into one of the arteries leading to the brain, disproved the highly revered Ventricle theory, in which physicians and philosophers believed that the spirits resided in the Ventricles in the brain. Another intriguing discovery was the network of nerves all throughout the brain. Being a visual person, I tried to visualize Willis inject a dye into one of the dog’s carotid arteries and his surprise when seeing a vast circuitry of vessels appearing like “a curious quilted ball (176).” On the other hand, I noticed the difference in experimentation protocol between the two time periods – then and now. Willis ties up all but one artery leading to the brain in a spaniel, and observes the vitality of the dog. This is one thing I don’t think would be possible in this day and age.
I was excited to see Willis’s revolutionary discovery: replacing the heart with the brain as the “moral center of Christianity… [and the] king of the body (180).” I am always amazed when I come upon a discovery so crucial and colossal that the foundation of an entire belief system is threatened. When philosophers and physicians attributed all morality, judgment and emotion to the heart, it must have been quite derailing to hear that their theory had no truth at all. The church must have felt the same way when Galileo proclaimed that earth was in fact not the center of the Universe. One such stunning instance in my lifetime would be the declaration of Pluto losing its title of being a planet. When growing up with nine planets, and memorizing them in order, it was a little disheartening to find out that are in fact only eight in our galaxy. My friend had learned the planets via a common pneumonic device, of which she lamented its sudden uselessness – “My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine…” – nine what?
Carl Zimmer mentions on page 185 that the virtuosi in the Royal Society promised “to make God’s work clear and provide an antidote to fanaticism (185).” It is so rare in the scientific community for anyone to “make God’s work clear.” The Royal Society was able and willing to witness God’s work in the brain, and even a leg of a flea. The difference in a few centuries is quite astounding. That was a time of discovery, and despite the understanding of functions and processes in the body, all was attributed to a creator. In contrast, while the present time is still one of discovery, the very mention of a divine origin or creator is shunned.
On the other hand, I wonder whether virtuosi such as Willis were forced to take a Christian stand, for fear that they would be persecuted or that their findings would not be welcomed otherwise. Zimmer states that Willis maintained that The Anatomy of the Brain was not “the work of an atheist” perhaps for the sake of upholding his respectability (187). Perhaps there were many prominent figures hiding behind masks, in order to be accepted in society. There is no clear way of knowing, unless an autobiography or journal might mention otherwise.
In case you are interested, please see the following article reviewing a book on the Royal Society.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010311/01a00340/0?frame=noframe&userID=435c1661@loyola.edu/01cce440610050145691&dpi=3&config=jstor
Also, I found an interview with Carl Zimmer, who elaborates on Thomas Willis. If you are interested, do visit http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/mind/stories/s1101281.htm
In 1660, Charles I came back into power bringing with him, old royalists determined to return English life to its 1640’s splendor. Bishops and priests also returned back to the churches, while the Archbishop Laud, who was executed for treason, was replaced by Gilbert Sheldon, who appeared as one of the Church’s strictest enforcers. All books and pamphlets were to be approved by the new bishop, and any anonymous pamphleteers were hunted down and thrown into Jail. Although the puritan hold over England was being loosened, bishops and priests did not feel safe. The Quakers and other fanatic sects romped throughout England defying parliament and causing trouble – even “offering to burn parts of the Bible they found offensive.” Strong measures were not taken against the unruly Quakers, mainly due to the higher priority given to another problem – the prospect of atheism in England.
While King Charles did not deny the existence of God, his court was far from pious – bringing in French customs of “perfume, face paint, and syphilis.” As a result, men imitated women in their ways of perfumed, colorful clothing, long periwigs, and face paint. Charles also reestablished himself as the spiritual leader of England by reverting to his old ritual of curing the King’s Evil, receiving thousands of people kneeling before him to receive his touch.
In the mean time, Thomas Willis continued with good fortune. He had earned himself a scientific reputation with his book and paracelsist drugs. For his loyalty, he was rewarded by a job – professor of natural philosophy at Oxford University, where he taught new theories from abroad, and discussed his own anti-Aristotelian ideas. Willis also delved deeply into research, dissecting heads and using the microscopes designed by Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to look at the structure and circuitry of the nerves, something that other anatomists had not attempted before. During this time, Willis and Richard Lower, a physician, were able to understand that blood travels throughout the body in a circular pathway and to all parts of the brain, through a series of experiments with arteries of humans and a famous case of a spaniel.
Willis also disproved theories by famous philosophers such as Descartes and Aristotle, and unlike others in history, he had evidence to prove his theory. When injecting dye in arteries leading up to the brain, there was no trace of it in the ventricles, thereby disproving Descartes’s theory that the soul resided in the ventricles. He also disproved Descartes’s claim that the Pineal gland was special to humans, as it is found in other species as well. By linking lung and heart function to different parts of the nervous system, Willis also disproved Aristotle’s theory of voluntary and involuntary movement. One revolutionary theory he introduced was the relocation of the soul. He gave all importance to the brain, and not the heart.
Willis and his friends had finished their explorations and wished to publish their new, concise findings about the nervous system. In order to help them in this endeavor, the Royal Society for Promoting Natural Science was established. This elite society was filled with Virtuosi of all walks of life and all fields of the sciences. Although King Charles supported them with a royal charter, the Royal society was reminded to “pay for it in a currency of amusement and hard labor (184).” The Virtuosi worked together on many natural investigations and also wished to inform the public of their research and findings by appointing Christopher Wren, who shifted his responsibilities to Robert Hooke, to put together an entire book of pictures explaining their work - Macrophagia. Willis, Hooke, and Wren also published Anatomy of a Brain - a trilogy of specific structure and composure of the brain and the nervous system.
Critique
I was quite excited about this chapter, because I felt as though Carl Zimmer was leading me through Thomas Willis’s thought process, as he was able to discover and prove the existence and importance of the nervous system in the human body. Just like Harvey, Willis was able to provide strong basis for his theories. I especially appreciated the simplicity in the experiments he conducted as evidence. For instance something as simple as a dye injected into one of the arteries leading to the brain, disproved the highly revered Ventricle theory, in which physicians and philosophers believed that the spirits resided in the Ventricles in the brain. Another intriguing discovery was the network of nerves all throughout the brain. Being a visual person, I tried to visualize Willis inject a dye into one of the dog’s carotid arteries and his surprise when seeing a vast circuitry of vessels appearing like “a curious quilted ball (176).” On the other hand, I noticed the difference in experimentation protocol between the two time periods – then and now. Willis ties up all but one artery leading to the brain in a spaniel, and observes the vitality of the dog. This is one thing I don’t think would be possible in this day and age.
I was excited to see Willis’s revolutionary discovery: replacing the heart with the brain as the “moral center of Christianity… [and the] king of the body (180).” I am always amazed when I come upon a discovery so crucial and colossal that the foundation of an entire belief system is threatened. When philosophers and physicians attributed all morality, judgment and emotion to the heart, it must have been quite derailing to hear that their theory had no truth at all. The church must have felt the same way when Galileo proclaimed that earth was in fact not the center of the Universe. One such stunning instance in my lifetime would be the declaration of Pluto losing its title of being a planet. When growing up with nine planets, and memorizing them in order, it was a little disheartening to find out that are in fact only eight in our galaxy. My friend had learned the planets via a common pneumonic device, of which she lamented its sudden uselessness – “My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine…” – nine what?
Carl Zimmer mentions on page 185 that the virtuosi in the Royal Society promised “to make God’s work clear and provide an antidote to fanaticism (185).” It is so rare in the scientific community for anyone to “make God’s work clear.” The Royal Society was able and willing to witness God’s work in the brain, and even a leg of a flea. The difference in a few centuries is quite astounding. That was a time of discovery, and despite the understanding of functions and processes in the body, all was attributed to a creator. In contrast, while the present time is still one of discovery, the very mention of a divine origin or creator is shunned.
On the other hand, I wonder whether virtuosi such as Willis were forced to take a Christian stand, for fear that they would be persecuted or that their findings would not be welcomed otherwise. Zimmer states that Willis maintained that The Anatomy of the Brain was not “the work of an atheist” perhaps for the sake of upholding his respectability (187). Perhaps there were many prominent figures hiding behind masks, in order to be accepted in society. There is no clear way of knowing, unless an autobiography or journal might mention otherwise.
In case you are interested, please see the following article reviewing a book on the Royal Society.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010311/01a00340/0?frame=noframe&userID=435c1661@loyola.edu/01cce440610050145691&dpi=3&config=jstor
Also, I found an interview with Carl Zimmer, who elaborates on Thomas Willis. If you are interested, do visit http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/mind/stories/s1101281.htm
Monday, October 22, 2007
The Movie Awakening is based on a true-life story, of neurologist Oliver Sacks who experiments with the victims of a rare "sleeping sickness" called encephalitis lethargica. Symptoms of encephalitis lethargica can be described by having high fever, sore throat, headache, double vision, delayed physical and mental response, sleep inversion, catatonia and lethargy. More serious cases, patients may enter a coma-like state (akinetic mutism). Patients may also experience abnormal eye movements, Parkinsonism, upper body weakness, muscular pains, tremors, neck rigidity, and behavioral changes including psychosis. The cause of encephalitis lethargica is not known for certain, however, recent research suggests that the disease is due to a massive immune reaction to an infection by the streptococcus-like bacterium, diplococcus.
In the movie a new neurologist is hired at a hospice for the chronicle ill. During his introduction the facility he notice that the patients are suffering from a disease that places them in a catatonic state. This catatonic state entails immobility, lost speech, all of which presents itself as being incurable to many of the physicians of the hospital. Linking all the patients to post-encephalitis he decides to administer L-Dopa to the patient as an attempted treatment to reverse his crippling disorder. Levodopa is used as a prodrug to increase dopamine levels for the treatment of Parkinson's disease, since it is able to cross the blood-brain barrier, whereas dopamine itself cannot. Once levodopa has entered the central nervous system (CNS), it is metabolized to dopamine by aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase.
His experimental use of the drug, L-Dopa resulted in the dramatic re-awakening of patients from a decades long state of paralyzed unresponsiveness. This revelation came with a heavy price, as the effects of the drug gradually diminished, and the patients slowly degenerated back into their frozen state. This film reveals how valuable life can be, and gives an appreciation for the simple things that we sometimes take for granted.
In the movie a new neurologist is hired at a hospice for the chronicle ill. During his introduction the facility he notice that the patients are suffering from a disease that places them in a catatonic state. This catatonic state entails immobility, lost speech, all of which presents itself as being incurable to many of the physicians of the hospital. Linking all the patients to post-encephalitis he decides to administer L-Dopa to the patient as an attempted treatment to reverse his crippling disorder. Levodopa is used as a prodrug to increase dopamine levels for the treatment of Parkinson's disease, since it is able to cross the blood-brain barrier, whereas dopamine itself cannot. Once levodopa has entered the central nervous system (CNS), it is metabolized to dopamine by aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase.
His experimental use of the drug, L-Dopa resulted in the dramatic re-awakening of patients from a decades long state of paralyzed unresponsiveness. This revelation came with a heavy price, as the effects of the drug gradually diminished, and the patients slowly degenerated back into their frozen state. This film reveals how valuable life can be, and gives an appreciation for the simple things that we sometimes take for granted.
Sunday, October 21, 2007
Neurobiology Post (Chapter 7) and Awakenings Summary& Critique
Chapter Seven Analysis
This chapter was rather long indeed. My interest was peaked somewhat but not nearly as much as previous chapters. I agree with Ynaling and Suba on their feelings that Willis’s ability to incorporate the practices of Van Helmont, Boyle, and Harvey to form the branch of study we now know as biochemistry was amazing. Seeing how all these different scientists ideas came together to form such an important field of study helped me to better understand their introduction in the previous chapters. Furthermore, Willis discovered that imperfections in the diaphragm weren’t responsible for “distortions of the mind.” Willis’s choice to not to change his treatment of fever and disease (despite his collected data) was rather humorous to me because, one would think with all his intelligence, he would know when change is necessary. Maybe he felt that, despite knowledge of the causes and all the useful information he collected, the new, possible solutions were not acceptable enough to implement. He would rather be halfway right, then to add a negative on to his record and have his work rejected (possibly).
Burd pointed out that, Willis “rejected the Puritan creed that everyone’s fate was predestined, believing instead that salvation came only to those who lived well- with repentance, obedience, and duty. And those who lacked their reason couldn’t live out this sort of existence and might not get to heaven.” (152) This statement intrigued my spiritually side, as well, when I read it because, although I agree that repentance along with service & obedience to God are important,
I also believe that our fate is predestined. Only God knows what will happen to us; he knows what we will do before we do it and he knows all things about us while we are going through life to figure them out.
Wren and his works with injections and splenectomy was another aspect of the chapter that peaked my interest. His passion for science and desire for perfection lead him to conduct experiments “just to pass the time” so he could master things such as his ability to hold veins in his hands without damaging them. For that, I admire him because, without individuals like that, we wouldn’t have so many advances in any aspect of life (especially in the world of science.)
More information on Christopher Wren:
http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/wren.html
Information on splenectomy:
http://healthlibrary.epnet.com/GetContent.aspx?token=70ff5260-81bd-4de1-9998-14fc98aa9133&chunkiid=14866
Willis and his descriptions of fermentation and fevers:
http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v5/n4/box/nrn1369_BX1.html
The Awakenings:
The movie Awakenings was about the true story of a doctor named Dr. Oliver Sacks. In the film, the doctor’s name was Malcolm Sayer (played by Robin Williams) and he discovered that there is a temporary dramatic effect on patients suffering from encephalitis lethargica when they took of the drug L-Dopa (which is a drug used to treat Parkinson’s disease). The patients, who were in a state of catatonia due to the illness, were “awakened” as a result of the continued administration of L-Dopa. These effects did not last forever, however, and they slowly went back into their previous “frozen state” after the drug wore off. The movie seemed to focus heavily on the character named Leonard Lowe. The movie seemed to focus heavily on the character named Leonard Lowe. The movie started out showing his life as a child and, then, fast forwards to his life now as an adult (where he is completely engulfed in the disease). This story not only follows Leonard, but also the other patients before their awakening, after, and their return to their catatonic state.
I had never seen nor heard about this movie before and I was completely amazed by the story. I was so happy that the doctor afforded them a time where they could walk, talk, and interact with others again since they had not been able to for so many years. My joy for them was short lived for the movie continued. Their fate hit me hard. It was so heart wrenching and I mourned for the patients internally. It was so sad to see that their one shot of freedom from their “froze prisons” was taken away from them so untimely. I could not imagine not being able to do the things I do on a daily basis. God truly has blessed all of us and so many things are taken for granted. Leonard’s revert back into his catatonic state saddened me because he was finding love, rekindling his relationship with his mother, and living life to the fullest just like the others. To see him dwindle to nothing must have been extremely hard for the other patients to witness since that, too, would be their fate. His courage to have his transformations video taped was admirable for it allowed for future study of the disease and for, possibly, treatments in the future,
I was enraged at how cocky and indifferent the other doctor’s were toward Dr. Sayer when all he was trying to do was provide the best for his patients. The fact that he tried to do something unthinkable made him a better doctor than them, in my opinion, because, in the world of science, we have to take risks in order to reach new plateaus. The donations from all the rich contributors showed that, despite some people’s lack in faith, God had a greater plan, and he allowed them to have just a moment of true happiness again.
Information on encephalitis lethargica:
http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/127/1/2
Information on the Awakenings movie:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awakenings
Oliver Sacks and the Awakenings:
http://www.oliversacks.com/awake.htm
This chapter was rather long indeed. My interest was peaked somewhat but not nearly as much as previous chapters. I agree with Ynaling and Suba on their feelings that Willis’s ability to incorporate the practices of Van Helmont, Boyle, and Harvey to form the branch of study we now know as biochemistry was amazing. Seeing how all these different scientists ideas came together to form such an important field of study helped me to better understand their introduction in the previous chapters. Furthermore, Willis discovered that imperfections in the diaphragm weren’t responsible for “distortions of the mind.” Willis’s choice to not to change his treatment of fever and disease (despite his collected data) was rather humorous to me because, one would think with all his intelligence, he would know when change is necessary. Maybe he felt that, despite knowledge of the causes and all the useful information he collected, the new, possible solutions were not acceptable enough to implement. He would rather be halfway right, then to add a negative on to his record and have his work rejected (possibly).
Burd pointed out that, Willis “rejected the Puritan creed that everyone’s fate was predestined, believing instead that salvation came only to those who lived well- with repentance, obedience, and duty. And those who lacked their reason couldn’t live out this sort of existence and might not get to heaven.” (152) This statement intrigued my spiritually side, as well, when I read it because, although I agree that repentance along with service & obedience to God are important,
I also believe that our fate is predestined. Only God knows what will happen to us; he knows what we will do before we do it and he knows all things about us while we are going through life to figure them out.
Wren and his works with injections and splenectomy was another aspect of the chapter that peaked my interest. His passion for science and desire for perfection lead him to conduct experiments “just to pass the time” so he could master things such as his ability to hold veins in his hands without damaging them. For that, I admire him because, without individuals like that, we wouldn’t have so many advances in any aspect of life (especially in the world of science.)
More information on Christopher Wren:
http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/wren.html
Information on splenectomy:
http://healthlibrary.epnet.com/GetContent.aspx?token=70ff5260-81bd-4de1-9998-14fc98aa9133&chunkiid=14866
Willis and his descriptions of fermentation and fevers:
http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v5/n4/box/nrn1369_BX1.html
The Awakenings:
The movie Awakenings was about the true story of a doctor named Dr. Oliver Sacks. In the film, the doctor’s name was Malcolm Sayer (played by Robin Williams) and he discovered that there is a temporary dramatic effect on patients suffering from encephalitis lethargica when they took of the drug L-Dopa (which is a drug used to treat Parkinson’s disease). The patients, who were in a state of catatonia due to the illness, were “awakened” as a result of the continued administration of L-Dopa. These effects did not last forever, however, and they slowly went back into their previous “frozen state” after the drug wore off. The movie seemed to focus heavily on the character named Leonard Lowe. The movie seemed to focus heavily on the character named Leonard Lowe. The movie started out showing his life as a child and, then, fast forwards to his life now as an adult (where he is completely engulfed in the disease). This story not only follows Leonard, but also the other patients before their awakening, after, and their return to their catatonic state.
I had never seen nor heard about this movie before and I was completely amazed by the story. I was so happy that the doctor afforded them a time where they could walk, talk, and interact with others again since they had not been able to for so many years. My joy for them was short lived for the movie continued. Their fate hit me hard. It was so heart wrenching and I mourned for the patients internally. It was so sad to see that their one shot of freedom from their “froze prisons” was taken away from them so untimely. I could not imagine not being able to do the things I do on a daily basis. God truly has blessed all of us and so many things are taken for granted. Leonard’s revert back into his catatonic state saddened me because he was finding love, rekindling his relationship with his mother, and living life to the fullest just like the others. To see him dwindle to nothing must have been extremely hard for the other patients to witness since that, too, would be their fate. His courage to have his transformations video taped was admirable for it allowed for future study of the disease and for, possibly, treatments in the future,
I was enraged at how cocky and indifferent the other doctor’s were toward Dr. Sayer when all he was trying to do was provide the best for his patients. The fact that he tried to do something unthinkable made him a better doctor than them, in my opinion, because, in the world of science, we have to take risks in order to reach new plateaus. The donations from all the rich contributors showed that, despite some people’s lack in faith, God had a greater plan, and he allowed them to have just a moment of true happiness again.
Information on encephalitis lethargica:
http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/127/1/2
Information on the Awakenings movie:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awakenings
Oliver Sacks and the Awakenings:
http://www.oliversacks.com/awake.htm
Wednesday, October 17, 2007
Chapter 7 Summary
Chapter 7, titled “Spirits of Blood, Spirits of Air” discusses Willis dawning notion of the body as an assembly of atoms. However, he took Boyle’s lead in not declaring to know the identity of these atoms. Willis strayed form Harvey’s assertion of blood being a “single spiritual substance” and began to understand that it consisted of a number of components, to which he gave well-known labels such as, earth, water, salt, sulfur and spirit. He gave certain characteristics to these components: earth and water tended to be “the most passive” while salt was thought to be much more active. However, due to Willis’ observance of the salty property of seeds, he postulated that this component was able to “give life weight and duration” as well as create new life. Sulfur and spirit on the other hand were the more agitated and active components. While sulfur was linked with fire, spirit contained “Aetherial Particles of a more Devine Breathing.” When these two highly active principles were mixed together, a ferment was created.
Choosing to leave behind the spiritual qualities administered to ferments by van Helmont, Willis decided to explain ferments in a manner more befitting the natural sciences. Willis observed that blood could separate into different components when left to stand. When the watery substance that emanated from the blood was put into a flame, it transformed into white solids. Hence, he theorized that blood must be a ferment. Comparing the action of yeast in dough to the ferment of blood, Willis stated that sulfur, salt, spirit and earth were disconnected from each other and from the corpuscles (where they were all held together), as a result of a heating in the heart. Willis declared that blood was in a constant ferment, unlike those of beer and dough.
Once again dismissing van Helmont’s spiritual based theory, Willis claimed that fevers were caused as a result of distortion of fermentation of the blood. This caused the blood’s particles to become more agitated than normal. This in turn, resulted in the blood boiling violently and its pounding against vessels leading to an increase in body temperature and pulse. Willis was so enthralled with fermenting, that he equated doctors to vintners when it came to the curing hand handling of patients.
Willis intertwined Harvey’s anatomy, van Helmont’s alchemy and Boyle’s theory of corpuscles to eventually create a branch of science that would come to be known as biochemistry. Although Willis’ theories were questioned by a number of his colleagues (such as Boyle), he’s book regarding fevers was slowly circulating among the scientific community and was poised for publication. However, despite the highs in Willis’ own life, the lives of many in Oxford were coming to a painful end as diseases, such as meningitis and smallpox, overwhelmed the town. Nonetheless, this caused an exponential increase in the number of patients that Willis attended to, allowing him to clandestinely invent and administer a number of drugs.
As Willis profession took off, he wed Mary Fell who was the daughter of a dean to the Christ Church prior to the war. When Willis’ book was released in 1659, it was circulated throughout Europe and he became a very well-known doctor, whose theories of corpuscles being the source of explanation for the workings of diseases were viewed as questionable by some. Willis’ work created a stir, as he discredited Aristotle’s theory of the four elements and Galen’s four humors. However, despite Willis’ novel and more rational ideas regarding fevers, he made few advances in changing they ways in which they were treated. He continued to use the treatment of purging the body of heat in order to rid it of fever.
Willis disregarded the Puritan notion of everyone’s fate being predetermined. He claimed that in order for one to ascend into heave, life had to be lived in a obedient and dutiful manner. This, however, would not be possible for a number of his patients who were inflicted with diseases that distorted the mind and destroyed one’s intellect.
Hence, Willis began to place more emphasis on the idea of animal spirits, which he believed to be the most active. He began to compare the structure of and protrusions from the brain to apparatuses used in chemistry. This led Willis to theorize that the spirits were “distilled” from the blood as it rose to the brain. They were then taken up by the brain and entered the organ. Willis fascination with the brain ultimately led to him discovering that imperfections in the diaphragm were not responsible for distortions of the mind. In addition, Willis also discovered that the pictures provided by Vesalius were grossly inaccurate. Hence, he set out to thoroughly study the brain and the nerves. However, his research did not pick up speed for a number of years as it would have eventually led him to question firmly held notions regarding the soul. This would have been a perilous task to undertake during the late 1650s, which was witnessing a string of political unrests and disruptions following the death of Oliver Cromwell. Hence, Willis’ research of blood was not interrupted and he, along with his friends, went on to developed microscopes, preservatives and injections.
Willis took a gifted young man, Richard Lower under his wing during the years of political upheaval in England. Lower aided Willis in a number of experiments and even made discoveries himself (which, however, Willis took credit for). One of the questions Lower helped Willis attend to was regarding the red color of blood. Through research, Willis decided that the red color of blood was due to a fermenting fluid in the heart which transformed the blood in the same ways as wine or beer would be fermented. The components of blood (spirit, sulfur and salt) were responsible for the red color of blood.
However, Boyle and Hooke theorized that Willis was not completely accurate. This eventually led to the assumption that it is air that plays a vital role in the “blood’s power.” This, in turn, led to the barometer being put to important use by the Oxford Circle in order to study the weight of air. Despite the craze around barometers, it was observed that they did not provide any significant aid in calculating the weight of air. Hence, Boyle used an altered version of a pump built by Otto Guericke (a German burgomaster) to demonstrate that air was lighter than water by many fold, leading to the discovery that the atmosphere was extremely far above the Earth. This eventually led to Willis’ colleague, Ralph Bathurst, being influential in Boyle’s admittance to lungs not being responsible for cooling blood or ridding the body of fumes.
Christopher Wren was another important figure during this time. He was instrumental in building giant telescopes and asserting to the presence of “arms” (rings) around Saturn. He was fascinated with carrying our complex experiments, one of which would change the perception of the spleen forever.
A number of theories regarding the function of the spleen were floating around and Wren decided to undertake an experiment, whereby he would remove the spleen form a dog and close off the severed arteries. After Wren performed the surgery, both he and Boyle observed that the dog was not affected at all. In addition to performing one of the first operations involving the removal of the spleen, Wren also began to perfect the use of injections and, along with Boyle, postulated that alcohol would be an ideal for keeping organs fresh.
During Wren’s astounding work, Owen Cromwell succumbed to cancer and his son, Richard Cromwell took over the leadership position. However, he was eventually overthrown and sent back to the country where he had grown up. General George Monck then took over leadership, ultimately transferring it back into the hands of King Charles.
Critique:
Chapter 7 was very engaging and not as unwieldy as some of the previous chapters. I was glad to learn that Willis was putting aside archaic theories previously presented by Aristotle and Galen and replacing them with slightly more reasonable ones. I found Willis theory regarding blood being a ferment to be very interesting as I had not heard of this notion before. I also thought his comparing a physicians handling of patients to a vintner’s handling of wine creative (albeit, a little crude). I was surprised to learn that Willis was responsible for the development of biochemistry, as this was a fact that I was not previously aware of. It helped me understand the scope of his contributions to our perception of science today. Despite Willis’ brilliant discoveries and proposals regarding the source of fevers, I found it rather puzzling that he did not change his treatment of the diseases.
I found it equally interesting that Willis was responsible for the disintegration of the notion that the diaphragm was a barrier to the “lower soul.” Damage to the diaphragm was thought to cause delirium and frenzies, which Willis discredited. I was disappointed that the political unrest and spiritual beliefs of Willis' time placed restrictions on his carrying out continual research on the brain. This would have allowed him to venture into questioning and investigating the soul, which would have, no doubt been intriguing to read about. However, it was due to these restrictions that Willis and his colleagues developed a number of instruments, such as microscopes and injections and I definitely also appreciate them for those accomplishments.
Zimmer went on to elucidate Christopher Wren’s achievements in Chapter 7. I could not fathom as to why and how Wren abstained from keeping a clear account of his experimental findings as he carried out immeasurable experiments to “pass time” (163). This signifies his brilliance (though he seemed to be rather impatient as well). It was fascinating to read about Wren “perfecting” the use of injections, right up to a point where he could hold veins in his hands while avoiding damaging them.
Overall, this chapter was definitely a worth-while read, as I can finally understand the extent of Willis’ contributions. Wren and Boyle also played a pivotal role in spearheading a number of great discoveries that we take for granted today. I never thought about who was responsible for the “creation” of biochemistry or invention of the injection. Hence, this chapter was very eye-opening for me.
* For a biography of and collection of essays from Thomas Willis:
http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n06/historia/willis_i.htm
*For a biography of Christopher Wren, including his architectural works:
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Wren.html
* A Brief History of the barometer:
http://www.barometer.ws/history.html
* Information on Boyle’s air pump:
Choosing to leave behind the spiritual qualities administered to ferments by van Helmont, Willis decided to explain ferments in a manner more befitting the natural sciences. Willis observed that blood could separate into different components when left to stand. When the watery substance that emanated from the blood was put into a flame, it transformed into white solids. Hence, he theorized that blood must be a ferment. Comparing the action of yeast in dough to the ferment of blood, Willis stated that sulfur, salt, spirit and earth were disconnected from each other and from the corpuscles (where they were all held together), as a result of a heating in the heart. Willis declared that blood was in a constant ferment, unlike those of beer and dough.
Once again dismissing van Helmont’s spiritual based theory, Willis claimed that fevers were caused as a result of distortion of fermentation of the blood. This caused the blood’s particles to become more agitated than normal. This in turn, resulted in the blood boiling violently and its pounding against vessels leading to an increase in body temperature and pulse. Willis was so enthralled with fermenting, that he equated doctors to vintners when it came to the curing hand handling of patients.
Willis intertwined Harvey’s anatomy, van Helmont’s alchemy and Boyle’s theory of corpuscles to eventually create a branch of science that would come to be known as biochemistry. Although Willis’ theories were questioned by a number of his colleagues (such as Boyle), he’s book regarding fevers was slowly circulating among the scientific community and was poised for publication. However, despite the highs in Willis’ own life, the lives of many in Oxford were coming to a painful end as diseases, such as meningitis and smallpox, overwhelmed the town. Nonetheless, this caused an exponential increase in the number of patients that Willis attended to, allowing him to clandestinely invent and administer a number of drugs.
As Willis profession took off, he wed Mary Fell who was the daughter of a dean to the Christ Church prior to the war. When Willis’ book was released in 1659, it was circulated throughout Europe and he became a very well-known doctor, whose theories of corpuscles being the source of explanation for the workings of diseases were viewed as questionable by some. Willis’ work created a stir, as he discredited Aristotle’s theory of the four elements and Galen’s four humors. However, despite Willis’ novel and more rational ideas regarding fevers, he made few advances in changing they ways in which they were treated. He continued to use the treatment of purging the body of heat in order to rid it of fever.
Willis disregarded the Puritan notion of everyone’s fate being predetermined. He claimed that in order for one to ascend into heave, life had to be lived in a obedient and dutiful manner. This, however, would not be possible for a number of his patients who were inflicted with diseases that distorted the mind and destroyed one’s intellect.
Hence, Willis began to place more emphasis on the idea of animal spirits, which he believed to be the most active. He began to compare the structure of and protrusions from the brain to apparatuses used in chemistry. This led Willis to theorize that the spirits were “distilled” from the blood as it rose to the brain. They were then taken up by the brain and entered the organ. Willis fascination with the brain ultimately led to him discovering that imperfections in the diaphragm were not responsible for distortions of the mind. In addition, Willis also discovered that the pictures provided by Vesalius were grossly inaccurate. Hence, he set out to thoroughly study the brain and the nerves. However, his research did not pick up speed for a number of years as it would have eventually led him to question firmly held notions regarding the soul. This would have been a perilous task to undertake during the late 1650s, which was witnessing a string of political unrests and disruptions following the death of Oliver Cromwell. Hence, Willis’ research of blood was not interrupted and he, along with his friends, went on to developed microscopes, preservatives and injections.
Willis took a gifted young man, Richard Lower under his wing during the years of political upheaval in England. Lower aided Willis in a number of experiments and even made discoveries himself (which, however, Willis took credit for). One of the questions Lower helped Willis attend to was regarding the red color of blood. Through research, Willis decided that the red color of blood was due to a fermenting fluid in the heart which transformed the blood in the same ways as wine or beer would be fermented. The components of blood (spirit, sulfur and salt) were responsible for the red color of blood.
However, Boyle and Hooke theorized that Willis was not completely accurate. This eventually led to the assumption that it is air that plays a vital role in the “blood’s power.” This, in turn, led to the barometer being put to important use by the Oxford Circle in order to study the weight of air. Despite the craze around barometers, it was observed that they did not provide any significant aid in calculating the weight of air. Hence, Boyle used an altered version of a pump built by Otto Guericke (a German burgomaster) to demonstrate that air was lighter than water by many fold, leading to the discovery that the atmosphere was extremely far above the Earth. This eventually led to Willis’ colleague, Ralph Bathurst, being influential in Boyle’s admittance to lungs not being responsible for cooling blood or ridding the body of fumes.
Christopher Wren was another important figure during this time. He was instrumental in building giant telescopes and asserting to the presence of “arms” (rings) around Saturn. He was fascinated with carrying our complex experiments, one of which would change the perception of the spleen forever.
A number of theories regarding the function of the spleen were floating around and Wren decided to undertake an experiment, whereby he would remove the spleen form a dog and close off the severed arteries. After Wren performed the surgery, both he and Boyle observed that the dog was not affected at all. In addition to performing one of the first operations involving the removal of the spleen, Wren also began to perfect the use of injections and, along with Boyle, postulated that alcohol would be an ideal for keeping organs fresh.
During Wren’s astounding work, Owen Cromwell succumbed to cancer and his son, Richard Cromwell took over the leadership position. However, he was eventually overthrown and sent back to the country where he had grown up. General George Monck then took over leadership, ultimately transferring it back into the hands of King Charles.
Critique:
Chapter 7 was very engaging and not as unwieldy as some of the previous chapters. I was glad to learn that Willis was putting aside archaic theories previously presented by Aristotle and Galen and replacing them with slightly more reasonable ones. I found Willis theory regarding blood being a ferment to be very interesting as I had not heard of this notion before. I also thought his comparing a physicians handling of patients to a vintner’s handling of wine creative (albeit, a little crude). I was surprised to learn that Willis was responsible for the development of biochemistry, as this was a fact that I was not previously aware of. It helped me understand the scope of his contributions to our perception of science today. Despite Willis’ brilliant discoveries and proposals regarding the source of fevers, I found it rather puzzling that he did not change his treatment of the diseases.
I found it equally interesting that Willis was responsible for the disintegration of the notion that the diaphragm was a barrier to the “lower soul.” Damage to the diaphragm was thought to cause delirium and frenzies, which Willis discredited. I was disappointed that the political unrest and spiritual beliefs of Willis' time placed restrictions on his carrying out continual research on the brain. This would have allowed him to venture into questioning and investigating the soul, which would have, no doubt been intriguing to read about. However, it was due to these restrictions that Willis and his colleagues developed a number of instruments, such as microscopes and injections and I definitely also appreciate them for those accomplishments.
Zimmer went on to elucidate Christopher Wren’s achievements in Chapter 7. I could not fathom as to why and how Wren abstained from keeping a clear account of his experimental findings as he carried out immeasurable experiments to “pass time” (163). This signifies his brilliance (though he seemed to be rather impatient as well). It was fascinating to read about Wren “perfecting” the use of injections, right up to a point where he could hold veins in his hands while avoiding damaging them.
Overall, this chapter was definitely a worth-while read, as I can finally understand the extent of Willis’ contributions. Wren and Boyle also played a pivotal role in spearheading a number of great discoveries that we take for granted today. I never thought about who was responsible for the “creation” of biochemistry or invention of the injection. Hence, this chapter was very eye-opening for me.
* For a biography of and collection of essays from Thomas Willis:
http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n06/historia/willis_i.htm
*For a biography of Christopher Wren, including his architectural works:
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Wren.html
* A Brief History of the barometer:
http://www.barometer.ws/history.html
* Information on Boyle’s air pump:
Saturday, October 13, 2007
Awakenings Response
Based on a true story called Awakenings, the movie showed the attempt of Dr. Sayer to cure this illness called Encephalitis lethargica (EL) in those who have remained unmindful to what happens around them. And so, I was moved and excited to know the outcome for the patients and Dr. Sayer in taking the risk and given his patients who suffer from encephalitis a drug used for Parkinson's Disease called L-Dopa. The fact that he tried everything he could do to help his patients live a normal life again that I admired his dedication in the process of his works with the patients.
When he administered the drug to one particular patient, Leonard Lowe, he almost miraculously wakes up and becomes a normal human being, as if nothing had happened. Because of this, the entire ward of afflicted patients was also awakened with the drug, L-Dopa. The patients were able to make up for lost time, doing what they had never been able to do. This part was so emotional for me that I even tried to hold my tears, because imagine that given your life back again would be so overwhelming that you would be reminded to appreciate the pleasures of being alive, including the pleasures that require us to take risks. And so, being away for such a long and given life back, you would never take your life for granted again. And that I would live life to the fullest even if it were good or bad, meaning that I would look at things on the bright side and be positive. However, I was heartbroken for some patients that their return to life was a traumatic one. That is, others found their children have left, some could not cope with the fact they have lost almost fifty years of their lives, and lastly for some found their spouses dead.
Unfortunately, the drug had serious side-effects that produced mood changes. Leonard changed into the furious instigator among the mental patients of the hospital after he was denied unaccompanied access to the outside world. I can imagine how depressed this was for him not being given the life that he wanted besides being supervised inside. I, too would have wanted the freedom and the reality of life by not being supervised. However, I can understand that in his case it was acceptable for him to stay inside until further notice that he is fully recovered. But the "miracle" proved short-term as, one by one, the patients returned to their solitary, trance-like worlds.
When he administered the drug to one particular patient, Leonard Lowe, he almost miraculously wakes up and becomes a normal human being, as if nothing had happened. Because of this, the entire ward of afflicted patients was also awakened with the drug, L-Dopa. The patients were able to make up for lost time, doing what they had never been able to do. This part was so emotional for me that I even tried to hold my tears, because imagine that given your life back again would be so overwhelming that you would be reminded to appreciate the pleasures of being alive, including the pleasures that require us to take risks. And so, being away for such a long and given life back, you would never take your life for granted again. And that I would live life to the fullest even if it were good or bad, meaning that I would look at things on the bright side and be positive. However, I was heartbroken for some patients that their return to life was a traumatic one. That is, others found their children have left, some could not cope with the fact they have lost almost fifty years of their lives, and lastly for some found their spouses dead.
Unfortunately, the drug had serious side-effects that produced mood changes. Leonard changed into the furious instigator among the mental patients of the hospital after he was denied unaccompanied access to the outside world. I can imagine how depressed this was for him not being given the life that he wanted besides being supervised inside. I, too would have wanted the freedom and the reality of life by not being supervised. However, I can understand that in his case it was acceptable for him to stay inside until further notice that he is fully recovered. But the "miracle" proved short-term as, one by one, the patients returned to their solitary, trance-like worlds.
Awakenings Analysis
The movie, Awakenings, is based on a book written by Dr. Oliver Sacks about the real-life account of the patients afflicted with encephalitis lethargica (EL) and their amazing recovery through the drug L-Dopa. Still of unknown origin, encephalitis lethargica is thought to be caused by an autoimmune response to a diplococci infection, namely the attachment of self IgG antibodies to the basal ganglia and midbrain—regions that utilized the neurotransmitter, dopamine—, thereby marking these regions for destruction by one’s own immune system. Thus, the victims are left motionless in a catatonic state. The administration of high doses of L-Dopa, a drug used to alleviate the symptoms exhibited by Parkinson’s disease sufferers, counteracts this when it is converted into dopamine that localizes in the basal ganglia. Thus, EL patients are capable of functioning just as they had prior to acquiring the disease.
I found this film to be very interesting because it illustrates just how complex the human body truly is. The causes of EL were certainly a mystery, and the fact that there is still no clear answer to this question today is certainly quite intriguing. Prior to doing research on L-Dopa and its effects on EL patients, I was mystified by this miracle drug. Now that the biochemical components have been elucidated, I still maintain the same level of amazement, only this time, more so because of the fact that something so seemingly minute, like a neurotransmitter, could have such a profound impact on a human being.
Something I found disturbing about this film was the doctors’ treatment of EL and other “chronic” patients. When Dr. Sayer began to make critical observations about the patients and their mannerisms, the other doctors scoffed at him. Moreover, the head of the neurology department initially denied the administration of L-Dopa on the EL patients, even after Dr. Sayer had proven it was beneficial to Leonard Lowe. As an aspiring physician, this appalled me because as a doctor, the head of the neurology’s primary responsibility was to his patients, regardless of their conditions. To deprive them of something beneficial would have been unethical.
Also, I agree with Burd when she states that this movie really puts daily life into perspective for the healthy viewer. We have all been blessed with good health and great families and friends. Watching the EL patients wake up from their catatonic state, only to find that their worlds were not as they left it was truly heartbreaking. I, personally, could not fathom being placed in a similar position.
I found this film to be very interesting because it illustrates just how complex the human body truly is. The causes of EL were certainly a mystery, and the fact that there is still no clear answer to this question today is certainly quite intriguing. Prior to doing research on L-Dopa and its effects on EL patients, I was mystified by this miracle drug. Now that the biochemical components have been elucidated, I still maintain the same level of amazement, only this time, more so because of the fact that something so seemingly minute, like a neurotransmitter, could have such a profound impact on a human being.
Something I found disturbing about this film was the doctors’ treatment of EL and other “chronic” patients. When Dr. Sayer began to make critical observations about the patients and their mannerisms, the other doctors scoffed at him. Moreover, the head of the neurology department initially denied the administration of L-Dopa on the EL patients, even after Dr. Sayer had proven it was beneficial to Leonard Lowe. As an aspiring physician, this appalled me because as a doctor, the head of the neurology’s primary responsibility was to his patients, regardless of their conditions. To deprive them of something beneficial would have been unethical.
Also, I agree with Burd when she states that this movie really puts daily life into perspective for the healthy viewer. We have all been blessed with good health and great families and friends. Watching the EL patients wake up from their catatonic state, only to find that their worlds were not as they left it was truly heartbreaking. I, personally, could not fathom being placed in a similar position.
Awakenings Analysis
Awakenings was an awesome capturing of a real life occurence. I loved that it was based off of a book which was based on a true story about a man being "awakened" from a disease called encephalitis lethargica using the drug L-dopa.
I think what I liked the most about the movie was Dr. Sayer's (in real life, Oliver Sacks) determination in attempting to find a cure for these statute-like patients. When the other doctors laughed at him and thought his ideas and "findings" were silly, he continued his search. He looked up the drug, L-dopa, and the information about it. I find it poor on the other doctor's parts for at least not supporting Dr. Sayer or saying he might be on to something. He attended a seminar and even went as far as stalking the chemist in the bathroom. He increased dosages, against the pharmacists intentions, and found a temporary cure. I had to laugh when Dr. Sayer found that Leonard responded to his name and not the intensisty from the light turning on and off.
Even before Dr. Sayer was trying to find a drug cure, he was more concerned about the patient's well being. In Lucy's case, he thought she wanted a glass of water and was going to help her walk to the fountain. When he saw she wasn't drinking, he came across the idea and fact that it was the pattern on the floor that helped her in the continued walking. He went as far as continuing the checkered floor, just so she could get some water, or so Dr. Sayer thought.
I feel that not only was this movie about the patients having Encephalitis lethargica, but also a doctor's determination. I feel this was a great movie to watch and come to terms with certain illnesses. Not all diseases can be cured and the ones that can be, are only temporary. This was a great movie portraying this. It helped to put things in perspective, especially when it pertained to neurological disorders. The brain is just now starting to be undertood and there is still so much more to be learned before we can help others with problems.
I think what I liked the most about the movie was Dr. Sayer's (in real life, Oliver Sacks) determination in attempting to find a cure for these statute-like patients. When the other doctors laughed at him and thought his ideas and "findings" were silly, he continued his search. He looked up the drug, L-dopa, and the information about it. I find it poor on the other doctor's parts for at least not supporting Dr. Sayer or saying he might be on to something. He attended a seminar and even went as far as stalking the chemist in the bathroom. He increased dosages, against the pharmacists intentions, and found a temporary cure. I had to laugh when Dr. Sayer found that Leonard responded to his name and not the intensisty from the light turning on and off.
Even before Dr. Sayer was trying to find a drug cure, he was more concerned about the patient's well being. In Lucy's case, he thought she wanted a glass of water and was going to help her walk to the fountain. When he saw she wasn't drinking, he came across the idea and fact that it was the pattern on the floor that helped her in the continued walking. He went as far as continuing the checkered floor, just so she could get some water, or so Dr. Sayer thought.
I feel that not only was this movie about the patients having Encephalitis lethargica, but also a doctor's determination. I feel this was a great movie to watch and come to terms with certain illnesses. Not all diseases can be cured and the ones that can be, are only temporary. This was a great movie portraying this. It helped to put things in perspective, especially when it pertained to neurological disorders. The brain is just now starting to be undertood and there is still so much more to be learned before we can help others with problems.
Awakenings Response
Awakenings was an excellent movie that introduced me to Encephalitis lethargica (EL). This film was based on the book, Awakenings by Dr. Oliver Sacks a neurologist currently practicing at Columbia University Medical Center. Dr. Sacks was a neurologist at Beth Abraham Hospital in the Bronx where he came across a group of patients that had been in a catatonic state for decades. He found that this group of patients had contracted EL during the EL epidemic from 1917 to 1928. He treated these patients with Levodopa or L-dopa, which caused them to come out of their catatonia. Dr. Sacks wrote about his patients in his book that was eventually made into the movie we viewed.
I have to admit that when watching the film I expected this total breakthrough with the treatment of L-Dopa and the full recovery of all the patients. So, the outcome at the end of the movie was a definite letdown, since L-Dopa’s effects on the patients was only temporary. They were so close to normalcy and good health, and yet so far. I cannot even imagine how they must have felt when the medicine that gave them another chance at life started working against them. The fear and the disappointment portrayed in the movie was heartbreaking to watch. Also, Leonard Lowe’s will to fight back against his disease when it was taking over him again made me admire him so much. And in agreement with Burd, Lowe helped raise awareness of not only L-Dopa but of Encephalitis lethargica.
As a side note, no recurrence of this epidemic has been reported since. And this just gives me a peace of mind because I think that EL is almost as bad as death, since it teases the patients and their families. It teases them by keeping their body alive but not their mind. For example, in their catatonic state their inability to verbally communicate is difficult for the patients but also for the families.
This web site provides information on Encephalitis lethargica:
http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/encephalitis_lethargica/encephalitis_lethargica.htm
This is a great site that provides detailed information on L-Dopa:
http://www.umm.edu/patiented/articles/what_levadopa_l-dopa_000051_7.htm
I have to admit that when watching the film I expected this total breakthrough with the treatment of L-Dopa and the full recovery of all the patients. So, the outcome at the end of the movie was a definite letdown, since L-Dopa’s effects on the patients was only temporary. They were so close to normalcy and good health, and yet so far. I cannot even imagine how they must have felt when the medicine that gave them another chance at life started working against them. The fear and the disappointment portrayed in the movie was heartbreaking to watch. Also, Leonard Lowe’s will to fight back against his disease when it was taking over him again made me admire him so much. And in agreement with Burd, Lowe helped raise awareness of not only L-Dopa but of Encephalitis lethargica.
As a side note, no recurrence of this epidemic has been reported since. And this just gives me a peace of mind because I think that EL is almost as bad as death, since it teases the patients and their families. It teases them by keeping their body alive but not their mind. For example, in their catatonic state their inability to verbally communicate is difficult for the patients but also for the families.
This web site provides information on Encephalitis lethargica:
http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/encephalitis_lethargica/encephalitis_lethargica.htm
This is a great site that provides detailed information on L-Dopa:
http://www.umm.edu/patiented/articles/what_levadopa_l-dopa_000051_7.htm
Awakenings Critique
Awakenings evokes the true story of Dr. Oliver Sacks (portrayed as Malcolm Sayer by Robin Williams) and his discovery of the temporarily dramatic effects of the drug L-Dopa in patients suffering from encephalitis lethargica. Patients who were in a state of catatonia were “awakened” as a result of the administration of L-Dopa. However, the astounding benefits of the drug soon ware off and we are left witnessing the gradual withdrawal of the patients back into their previously catatonic states.
I have watched Awakenings many times, however, the frank portrayal of the patients’ and staff members’ joy and sorrow never fails to stun me. It was difficult to watch the helplessness of both doctors and family members of those inflicted with EL due to the obscurity of the disease. It also left me grappling for answers to a number of questions, such as, was it moral to administer the drug to Leonard Lowe and his fellow patients, giving them a false sense of hope and a tantalizing whiff of the life they could have been leading, only to have it taken away from them. It was very difficult for me to watch Leonard revert painfully back to a vegetative state. However, it was even more disconcerting and heartbreaking to watch the other patients witness what would eventually happen to them. This once again begs the question of moral authority.
Awakenings was very powerful in reinforcing the fact that not everyone in a vegetative state should be considered as being “brain dead.” I can’t even begin to imagine the horror of being trapped in an immobile body with barely any proper human contact.
What angered me greatly was the indifferent, and oftentimes condescending, manner of the neurologists in response to Dr. Sayers’ theories regarding L-Dopa and the disease gripping the patients. It is frightening to think that physicians, at times, do not think outside the box, especially if there is a significant sum of money involved. We saw this in both Awakenings as well as Lorenzo’s Oil.
I admire Leonard Lowe for allowing his temporary recovery and excruciating withdrawal to be filmed and shown to large numbers of people. Even though the money could not bring Leonard or his fellow patients back again, it did help raise awareness of what could (and couldn’t) be done with L-Dopa.
* Biography of Oliver Sacks:
<http://www.oliversacks.com/about.htm>
*A brief description of encephalitis lethargica:
< http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/encephalitis_
lethargica/encephalitis_lethargica.htm>
I have watched Awakenings many times, however, the frank portrayal of the patients’ and staff members’ joy and sorrow never fails to stun me. It was difficult to watch the helplessness of both doctors and family members of those inflicted with EL due to the obscurity of the disease. It also left me grappling for answers to a number of questions, such as, was it moral to administer the drug to Leonard Lowe and his fellow patients, giving them a false sense of hope and a tantalizing whiff of the life they could have been leading, only to have it taken away from them. It was very difficult for me to watch Leonard revert painfully back to a vegetative state. However, it was even more disconcerting and heartbreaking to watch the other patients witness what would eventually happen to them. This once again begs the question of moral authority.
Awakenings was very powerful in reinforcing the fact that not everyone in a vegetative state should be considered as being “brain dead.” I can’t even begin to imagine the horror of being trapped in an immobile body with barely any proper human contact.
What angered me greatly was the indifferent, and oftentimes condescending, manner of the neurologists in response to Dr. Sayers’ theories regarding L-Dopa and the disease gripping the patients. It is frightening to think that physicians, at times, do not think outside the box, especially if there is a significant sum of money involved. We saw this in both Awakenings as well as Lorenzo’s Oil.
I admire Leonard Lowe for allowing his temporary recovery and excruciating withdrawal to be filmed and shown to large numbers of people. Even though the money could not bring Leonard or his fellow patients back again, it did help raise awareness of what could (and couldn’t) be done with L-Dopa.
* Biography of Oliver Sacks:
<http://www.oliversacks.com/about.htm>
*A brief description of encephalitis lethargica:
< http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/encephalitis_
lethargica/encephalitis_lethargica.htm>
Awakenings Analysis
Awakenings is a drama film based on Oliver Sacks’ memoir. It is a true-life story of a doctor, Oliver Sacks, who began working as a consulting neurologist for Beth Abraham Hospital in the Bronx. It was there that he encountered a group of catatonic people who survived the 1917-1928 epidemic of encephalitis lethargica. Encephalitis lethargica is an inflammation of the brain caused by two trypanosomes (microscopic protozoan parasites). In 1969, Dr. Sacks treated his patients with an experimental drug, L-Dopa, intended for Parkinson’s Disease, which miraculously brought the patients out of their catatonic state and allowed them to “awaken” after so many decades. However, later in the movie, the effects of L-Dopa progressively begin to wear off returning the patients to their once catatonic states.
Awakenings is another heartrending movie that absorbs my attention and clinches onto my emotions. The movie was filled with uncertainness, curiosity, triumph, happiness, anger, and as all things must come to an end, sorrow. This story’s main theme that appears time and again is an appreciation for life and to live every minute life offers to its fullest. Only a person who had fallen asleep one day only to awaken as a grown man can understand to the fullest degree that life must be lived every minute of every day because you may just wake up and be tired and worn. We must enjoy the beauty that God has given to all of us.
The movie moved me in many ways. I, on many accounts, have forgotten what I have been given and take for granted things in my life such as: health, security, family and friends, food to eat, shelter to live, and so much more. It is not until some occurrence in my life allows me to open my eyes to the reality of the world and helps me to realize that so many people are struggling for these very things. Unfortunately, life tends to be very ironic just as this movie was so unexpected. Leonard Lowe was one of the patients who awoken after taking the drug, L-Dopa. At first, he had been given the opportunity to live his life because of people willing to care and do whatever they can to help another person. As the movie progressed, Leonard had to enjoy every minute because it seemed that he only had so many minutes left to do so. As a result of Leonard’s struggle to live life fully, others recognized that they were given the chance to live their lives cherishing each day, every minute, and every second. With this in mind, life is so unpredictable and one must understand that it can be taken from you at any point.
Another point that the movie made apparent is that science, as well, is unpredictable. Though a drug or procedure can have so many beneficial effects, it can also have so many unfavorable effects as well. The drug, L-Dopa, was at first a miraculous remedy for encephalitis lethargica but soon became to be a progressively disadvantageous drug because it only helped the patients to a certain extent.
In the end, the movie was a sorrow-filled film that allowed the audience to walk away with a better understanding of the rewards and the consequences of life. We may never have all of the answers; but small miracles like this helps one to witness that anything is possible through the life of science.
Awakenings is another heartrending movie that absorbs my attention and clinches onto my emotions. The movie was filled with uncertainness, curiosity, triumph, happiness, anger, and as all things must come to an end, sorrow. This story’s main theme that appears time and again is an appreciation for life and to live every minute life offers to its fullest. Only a person who had fallen asleep one day only to awaken as a grown man can understand to the fullest degree that life must be lived every minute of every day because you may just wake up and be tired and worn. We must enjoy the beauty that God has given to all of us.
The movie moved me in many ways. I, on many accounts, have forgotten what I have been given and take for granted things in my life such as: health, security, family and friends, food to eat, shelter to live, and so much more. It is not until some occurrence in my life allows me to open my eyes to the reality of the world and helps me to realize that so many people are struggling for these very things. Unfortunately, life tends to be very ironic just as this movie was so unexpected. Leonard Lowe was one of the patients who awoken after taking the drug, L-Dopa. At first, he had been given the opportunity to live his life because of people willing to care and do whatever they can to help another person. As the movie progressed, Leonard had to enjoy every minute because it seemed that he only had so many minutes left to do so. As a result of Leonard’s struggle to live life fully, others recognized that they were given the chance to live their lives cherishing each day, every minute, and every second. With this in mind, life is so unpredictable and one must understand that it can be taken from you at any point.
Another point that the movie made apparent is that science, as well, is unpredictable. Though a drug or procedure can have so many beneficial effects, it can also have so many unfavorable effects as well. The drug, L-Dopa, was at first a miraculous remedy for encephalitis lethargica but soon became to be a progressively disadvantageous drug because it only helped the patients to a certain extent.
In the end, the movie was a sorrow-filled film that allowed the audience to walk away with a better understanding of the rewards and the consequences of life. We may never have all of the answers; but small miracles like this helps one to witness that anything is possible through the life of science.
Monday, October 8, 2007
Chapter Six Blog
Chapter Six
The chapter was entitled "The Circle of Willis" and it started out talking about William Harvey.William Harvey (the discoverer of the motion of blood and the origin of animals) had went into seclusion and was thought to be dead. He published "Disputations Touching the Generation of Animals" in 1651 and this work proclaimed life (from human to frog) begins as an egg even though he had never seen the eggs of a mammal. He thought that human organs came" into existence only gradually, taking shape over time." (119) Harvey argued that the soul was the only thing that could guide the development of the egg to its destined form. He said that mechanists "insulted the workmanship of God." (119) Harvey financed the library for the College of Physicians. Harvey's discovery of blood circulation was thought to be a "new foundation of medicine"(121) by Willis. Harvey's ideas about the circulation of blood started to take hold around the time that King Charles was beheaded.
Next, the chapter switched to discussing the life of Thomas Willis and the Oxford Circle. Willis's parents were killed during the Civil War and a main focus of his work was fever. He wrote the earliest clinical description of the flu (influenza).In the early 1650's, the Oxford Circle came under attack from the Puritans. They didn’t have a problem with the religion; just the fact that the circle appeared to be easily distracted from the divine mission at hand because they were having to much fun. The attacks on the Oxford Circle coming from Webster and Dell were countered by pamphlets written by Wilkins and Ward claiming that they were immersed in "the new science" and how microscopes would " uncover life's smallest, most important ingredients." (125)
In 1654, the Society of Friends (Quakers) emerged as this new religion that claimed that every person is their own priest and true religion comes from the " inner light that overwhelmed the soul and made it quake" [126] (not from theology). The most threatening foe for the circle was Thomas Hobbes. Hobbes theorized that the universe was made only of matter. Nothing survived after we died and reason was not " a candle of God". Hobbes stated that only one form of government would work: one with an absolute ruler to whom all natural liberties of man were given up to. His work entitled Leviathan caused a lot of drama amongst various groups of people because it did not stated who should be the absolute ruler.
The Oxford Circle was in need of a spokesperson and anchor in these troublesome times and they found one in Robert Boyle. Boyle loved alchemy and thought that it could become a religious mission. An appreciation of God's handiwork could be appreciated through an understanding of the natural world. Boyle and an American named George Starkey worked on medicine together and tried making a drug that supposed was a powerful healer (essence of copper). [136] Starkey was most intrigued with the mystery of what was the make up of matter.
Boyle questioned the principles of chemical reactions and set out to show that these principles couldn’t not be accounted for by Aristotle's qualities, four elements, nor his forms. (140) Boyle did not want to be put all faith into a system that could possibly fail to include the full nature of truth and he favored mechanical philosophy. Boyle was similar to Willis in that he had a huge passion for medicine and wished to find out the link between weather and the outbreak of disease. He viewed the body as a machine made of " fluid and those in organical motion." (144). Boyle believed that thought belonged to God, rational souls, and the angels. Anyone with an explanation to Boyle of how matter could reason was not only going to instruct him but surprise him as well.
Critique
This chapter was a slightly difficult read for me because it was not one that held my interest very well. It contained a lot of information about drama between the Oxford Circle and other religious sects/ exiled leaders, which got dull after while. Along with that, there was through, detailed descriptions of the various experiments and achievements of men like Thomas Hobbes and Robert Boyle. By reading these, I was able to add to the database what I learned about some people who were instrumental in the beginnings of neurobiology.
Hobbes, once an ally of the Oxford Circle, became one of their most threatening enemies. This was very interesting because he was once one their strong supporters. Boyle was a very interesting man to me because of his passion and tenacity. He was dedicated to his work and he challenged the normal way of thinking. That is very brave, in my opinion, because it is hard to go against your peers and predecessors to state what you feel is right when it is contrary to popular belief.
In William Harvey's work, “Disputations Touching the Generation of Animals", I was astonished by the theory he had about mammals. He thought that life (from frogs to humans) began as an egg (despite the factor he never saw the eggs of a mammal). He also thought that human organs came "into existence only gradually, taking shape over time." This was a very insightful observation because we, indeed, do start out as eggs and, in our mother's womb, our organs continue to develop during the nine months before birth and for sometime afterwards as well.
I disagreed with the statement that Boyle made about matter and reason. He stated that anyone who thought they could explain how matter could reason was not only going to instruct him but surprise him as well. He said that thought belonged to God. I think, we as human beings, have come a long way in our understanding of how the brain operates and why we think/act/say the things we do. Despite this, we still have a long way to go because we still can not possibly know everything there is to know about every single pathway, enzyme, reactions, etc.
Links on Information about Robert Boyle:
http://www.bbk.ac.uk/boyle/biog.html http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/forerunners/boyle.html
Links on Information on William Harvey:
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hobbes-moral/
http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BC/William_Harvey.html
Links for Information on Thomas Hobbes:
http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/philosophers/hobbes.html
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hobbes-moral/
The chapter was entitled "The Circle of Willis" and it started out talking about William Harvey.William Harvey (the discoverer of the motion of blood and the origin of animals) had went into seclusion and was thought to be dead. He published "Disputations Touching the Generation of Animals" in 1651 and this work proclaimed life (from human to frog) begins as an egg even though he had never seen the eggs of a mammal. He thought that human organs came" into existence only gradually, taking shape over time." (119) Harvey argued that the soul was the only thing that could guide the development of the egg to its destined form. He said that mechanists "insulted the workmanship of God." (119) Harvey financed the library for the College of Physicians. Harvey's discovery of blood circulation was thought to be a "new foundation of medicine"(121) by Willis. Harvey's ideas about the circulation of blood started to take hold around the time that King Charles was beheaded.
Next, the chapter switched to discussing the life of Thomas Willis and the Oxford Circle. Willis's parents were killed during the Civil War and a main focus of his work was fever. He wrote the earliest clinical description of the flu (influenza).In the early 1650's, the Oxford Circle came under attack from the Puritans. They didn’t have a problem with the religion; just the fact that the circle appeared to be easily distracted from the divine mission at hand because they were having to much fun. The attacks on the Oxford Circle coming from Webster and Dell were countered by pamphlets written by Wilkins and Ward claiming that they were immersed in "the new science" and how microscopes would " uncover life's smallest, most important ingredients." (125)
In 1654, the Society of Friends (Quakers) emerged as this new religion that claimed that every person is their own priest and true religion comes from the " inner light that overwhelmed the soul and made it quake" [126] (not from theology). The most threatening foe for the circle was Thomas Hobbes. Hobbes theorized that the universe was made only of matter. Nothing survived after we died and reason was not " a candle of God". Hobbes stated that only one form of government would work: one with an absolute ruler to whom all natural liberties of man were given up to. His work entitled Leviathan caused a lot of drama amongst various groups of people because it did not stated who should be the absolute ruler.
The Oxford Circle was in need of a spokesperson and anchor in these troublesome times and they found one in Robert Boyle. Boyle loved alchemy and thought that it could become a religious mission. An appreciation of God's handiwork could be appreciated through an understanding of the natural world. Boyle and an American named George Starkey worked on medicine together and tried making a drug that supposed was a powerful healer (essence of copper). [136] Starkey was most intrigued with the mystery of what was the make up of matter.
Boyle questioned the principles of chemical reactions and set out to show that these principles couldn’t not be accounted for by Aristotle's qualities, four elements, nor his forms. (140) Boyle did not want to be put all faith into a system that could possibly fail to include the full nature of truth and he favored mechanical philosophy. Boyle was similar to Willis in that he had a huge passion for medicine and wished to find out the link between weather and the outbreak of disease. He viewed the body as a machine made of " fluid and those in organical motion." (144). Boyle believed that thought belonged to God, rational souls, and the angels. Anyone with an explanation to Boyle of how matter could reason was not only going to instruct him but surprise him as well.
Critique
This chapter was a slightly difficult read for me because it was not one that held my interest very well. It contained a lot of information about drama between the Oxford Circle and other religious sects/ exiled leaders, which got dull after while. Along with that, there was through, detailed descriptions of the various experiments and achievements of men like Thomas Hobbes and Robert Boyle. By reading these, I was able to add to the database what I learned about some people who were instrumental in the beginnings of neurobiology.
Hobbes, once an ally of the Oxford Circle, became one of their most threatening enemies. This was very interesting because he was once one their strong supporters. Boyle was a very interesting man to me because of his passion and tenacity. He was dedicated to his work and he challenged the normal way of thinking. That is very brave, in my opinion, because it is hard to go against your peers and predecessors to state what you feel is right when it is contrary to popular belief.
In William Harvey's work, “Disputations Touching the Generation of Animals", I was astonished by the theory he had about mammals. He thought that life (from frogs to humans) began as an egg (despite the factor he never saw the eggs of a mammal). He also thought that human organs came "into existence only gradually, taking shape over time." This was a very insightful observation because we, indeed, do start out as eggs and, in our mother's womb, our organs continue to develop during the nine months before birth and for sometime afterwards as well.
I disagreed with the statement that Boyle made about matter and reason. He stated that anyone who thought they could explain how matter could reason was not only going to instruct him but surprise him as well. He said that thought belonged to God. I think, we as human beings, have come a long way in our understanding of how the brain operates and why we think/act/say the things we do. Despite this, we still have a long way to go because we still can not possibly know everything there is to know about every single pathway, enzyme, reactions, etc.
Links on Information about Robert Boyle:
http://www.bbk.ac.uk/boyle/biog.html http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/forerunners/boyle.html
Links on Information on William Harvey:
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hobbes-moral/
http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BC/William_Harvey.html
Links for Information on Thomas Hobbes:
http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/philosophers/hobbes.html
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hobbes-moral/
Monday, October 1, 2007
Pisse-Prophets Among the Puritans
Synopsis
Chapter five, entitled "Pisse-Prophets Among the Puritans," is about Thomas Willis and his encounters with many other scientists and philosophers and how they formed their own group called the Oxford Experimental Philosophy Club (OEPC), in order to come about with new ways of approaching science and medicine. It also recognizes their financial struggles in trying to come about and make a living.
The chapter starts with how Willis disappeared after fighting in the war and upon his return was looked at like a hero. During this time, Parliament and the Puritans were "…interested in bringing the corrupt souls of Oxford to God," (83). Many activities that the people in Great Britain took for granted were now banned such as games and even holly at Christmas. Some radicals of Parliament and the Puritans were going so far as to make England kingless and democratic. Charles had a hard time with this because he felt it wrong that he should negotiate his throne.
On Charles' way back from Scotland with his captors, he found that he was being asked by the sick ones passed on the way back to England to heal them. The Puritan's mocked this calling his touch superstition and nicknaming him Stroker. Because the army and Parliament were having issues, such as the soldiers wanting to get paid for their services, Charles used this to his advantage by seeing which one would offer him the best terms in regards to keeping his throne and such. Eventually the King was killed by beheading.
Upon Willis' return to England, he was welcomed by being handed a medical degree even though his education was of reading books, playing with experiments and talks with followers of William Harvey. In essence, the medical degree given to him was "…a token of gratitude," (85). During this time of chaos between the Puritans and royalists, Willis found himself struggling financially, but scientifically, this was a time for new ideas about the soul.
Willis, during this time, was straining to find patients, competing for them among other "doctors" who he considered quacks and mountebanks. During this time, Willis and his colleagues were considered and had to work as pisse-prophets. Though he struggled to find patients, his scientific work was not lacking and had plenty of time to set up laboratories and even shy away from Aristotle. He dove right into medical alchemy, finding inspiration in Joan Baptista van Helmont.
van Helmont had the thought that all matter began as water and used an experiment where he planted a willow tree and measuring its weight before and after it grew, thus, showing, in his eyes, how matter began as water. van Helmont named clouds as gas, isolated different gases and even saw the human body as many different individual souls that governed every organ. "The body's archei worked like internal alchemists, transmuting matter from one form to another," (88). van Helmont, with this notion, believed that the soul did not reside in the head and did not think reason was "…the noblest gift to humans," (89). van Helmont was later branded as a troublemaker using magic to pervert nature, though he thought his work was that of God. Because of the discoveries made by van Helmont, Galen's work was now under scrutiny from all scientists.
With this knowledge, Willis' work grew, naming substances he isolated from boiling blood and urine from his patients, water, earth, salt, sulfur and spirit, of course borrowing from Paracelsus. In this manner, Willis was looking beyond the body for answers as to what substances might be essential to it.
At this point, Parliament had taken its toll on Oxford, sweeping it clean, having its people taking an oath where they would submit to the authority of Parliament. Willis was untouched during this interrogation because he was seen as invisible and instead keeping busy with his alchemy and medicine.
John Wilkins was mentioned in this chapter because he was part of the OEPC. This man inquired when it came to mathematics and astronomy, saying the Earth was a planet like the rest that revolved around the sun. He later became known as virtuosi because of his appetite for the curiosities relating to science. Wilkins was the one who started OEPC and set no religious or political standard for membership. Christopher Wren was another scientist mentioned. His work consisted trigonometry, sundials and models of muscles. With theses two and Willis, the OEPC was born and their thinking behind science was that everything was within their reach and even attempted to invent a universal language for science.
William Petty and Thomas Hobbes were also mentioned. Petty for his gift to make nothing into something and Hobbes for his idea that the world was purely mechanical. Petty learned about the circulatory system and how to dissect a body. Petty was penniless like the rest of the scientists. Hobbes was interested in the brain, stating that it was put into a certain motion which then put the heart in a motion and so forth. He didn’t really care how the brain worked as long as it did. He just wanted understanding of how the individual parts worked. Hobbes' work also had similarities to Descartes though their one difference was in that Hobbes did away with the immaterial. Hobbes' was brought up because of his influence on Petty. This made Petty start to view the body as a machine as well in which he wanted to dismantle.
Willis was known to keep casebooks on the different medical encounters he had with afflictions and diseases such as tuberculosis and arthritis. His diagnosis's were still thought of as imbalances though with corruption brought to the four humors. Willis did not have problems with diagnosing those types of diseases but seemed to have problems with neurological and psychological disorders. He would fall back on Galen to understand the many disorders he came across. He also found out about addictions, such as caffeine and memory problems in the case of Anne Greene.
Anne Greene had delivered a baby that was dead upon birth. She hid the baby because it was dead. They baby was found and she was convicted of murder. Her sentence was death. After considered dead, she was put in a coffin and given to Willis and Petty to do an autopsy, upon which they found her actually alive. Upon her revival, she had no recollection as to what happened to her. Willis and Petty determined that memory was just another machine in the body that could falter or fail.
Petty eventually went on to make an exact map of Ireland and established policy for the country, which is still used by governments today and known as statistics and economic policy. Willis went on to make his own church which became very popular. "A decade later he would found the science of neurology," (115).
Critique
Like all the previous posts regarding Carl Zimmer's book, I too found this chapter interesting. At first I felt slow reading it beacuse of the history background given, but once it started in on the scientists and their discoveries and contributions, I was hooked. It amazes me at how many things were discovered and invented and experimented upon in such a short period of time.
In one part of the chapter, I noticed how van Helmont mentioned something about reason not being the noblest gift of humans. He stated how he thought reason was actually a disease which distracted the soul. He said it really wasn't anything special to humans giving examples of wolves cornering a dog in its favorite sleeping spot or bees counting. He gave this all to the notion of being rational. I want to disagree with how van Helmont thought. I feel that we are born with certain instincts. A wolf cornering a dog or a bee counting is all instinct that is learned. They learn from their parents just as a baby learns how to communicate with different crys whether it needs to be changed or fed. I do feel that humans have reason. If we did not have reason, how would scientists, such as van Helmont, think of the things they did in order to have a progression in the sciences?
I loved the fact that Wilkins, Wren and Willis with their other virtuosi came together and tried to establish that science was within their reach along with attempting to create a universal language for all scientists. This made me excited for them and science. I feel that their main goal wasn't in trying to solve all the problems but in trying to make things less complicated that way all scientists knew what they were talking about. It may not be the same universal language us scientists used today, but I think they were on to something by attempting.
To continue with my amazement, I was very intrigued by the wide variety of diseases that Willis had "disovered" in his casebooks. All the way from simple things such as arthritis and kidney stones, to more serious cases like tuberculosis and physcological/neurological problems. It was pretty neat how he would go back and forth between using Galen and not using Galen in order to try to find "cures" for the diseases. Sometimes Willis could not account for Galen's medicine with the symptoms he encountered (104) then other times he would fall right back on Galen to understand the disorders he encountered (107).
Based on the discoveries made by Willis and his colleagues, I am anxious to see what the upcoming chapters will talk about since in a decade, Willis will have discovered the science of neurology.
Chapter five, entitled "Pisse-Prophets Among the Puritans," is about Thomas Willis and his encounters with many other scientists and philosophers and how they formed their own group called the Oxford Experimental Philosophy Club (OEPC), in order to come about with new ways of approaching science and medicine. It also recognizes their financial struggles in trying to come about and make a living.
The chapter starts with how Willis disappeared after fighting in the war and upon his return was looked at like a hero. During this time, Parliament and the Puritans were "…interested in bringing the corrupt souls of Oxford to God," (83). Many activities that the people in Great Britain took for granted were now banned such as games and even holly at Christmas. Some radicals of Parliament and the Puritans were going so far as to make England kingless and democratic. Charles had a hard time with this because he felt it wrong that he should negotiate his throne.
On Charles' way back from Scotland with his captors, he found that he was being asked by the sick ones passed on the way back to England to heal them. The Puritan's mocked this calling his touch superstition and nicknaming him Stroker. Because the army and Parliament were having issues, such as the soldiers wanting to get paid for their services, Charles used this to his advantage by seeing which one would offer him the best terms in regards to keeping his throne and such. Eventually the King was killed by beheading.
Upon Willis' return to England, he was welcomed by being handed a medical degree even though his education was of reading books, playing with experiments and talks with followers of William Harvey. In essence, the medical degree given to him was "…a token of gratitude," (85). During this time of chaos between the Puritans and royalists, Willis found himself struggling financially, but scientifically, this was a time for new ideas about the soul.
Willis, during this time, was straining to find patients, competing for them among other "doctors" who he considered quacks and mountebanks. During this time, Willis and his colleagues were considered and had to work as pisse-prophets. Though he struggled to find patients, his scientific work was not lacking and had plenty of time to set up laboratories and even shy away from Aristotle. He dove right into medical alchemy, finding inspiration in Joan Baptista van Helmont.
van Helmont had the thought that all matter began as water and used an experiment where he planted a willow tree and measuring its weight before and after it grew, thus, showing, in his eyes, how matter began as water. van Helmont named clouds as gas, isolated different gases and even saw the human body as many different individual souls that governed every organ. "The body's archei worked like internal alchemists, transmuting matter from one form to another," (88). van Helmont, with this notion, believed that the soul did not reside in the head and did not think reason was "…the noblest gift to humans," (89). van Helmont was later branded as a troublemaker using magic to pervert nature, though he thought his work was that of God. Because of the discoveries made by van Helmont, Galen's work was now under scrutiny from all scientists.
With this knowledge, Willis' work grew, naming substances he isolated from boiling blood and urine from his patients, water, earth, salt, sulfur and spirit, of course borrowing from Paracelsus. In this manner, Willis was looking beyond the body for answers as to what substances might be essential to it.
At this point, Parliament had taken its toll on Oxford, sweeping it clean, having its people taking an oath where they would submit to the authority of Parliament. Willis was untouched during this interrogation because he was seen as invisible and instead keeping busy with his alchemy and medicine.
John Wilkins was mentioned in this chapter because he was part of the OEPC. This man inquired when it came to mathematics and astronomy, saying the Earth was a planet like the rest that revolved around the sun. He later became known as virtuosi because of his appetite for the curiosities relating to science. Wilkins was the one who started OEPC and set no religious or political standard for membership. Christopher Wren was another scientist mentioned. His work consisted trigonometry, sundials and models of muscles. With theses two and Willis, the OEPC was born and their thinking behind science was that everything was within their reach and even attempted to invent a universal language for science.
William Petty and Thomas Hobbes were also mentioned. Petty for his gift to make nothing into something and Hobbes for his idea that the world was purely mechanical. Petty learned about the circulatory system and how to dissect a body. Petty was penniless like the rest of the scientists. Hobbes was interested in the brain, stating that it was put into a certain motion which then put the heart in a motion and so forth. He didn’t really care how the brain worked as long as it did. He just wanted understanding of how the individual parts worked. Hobbes' work also had similarities to Descartes though their one difference was in that Hobbes did away with the immaterial. Hobbes' was brought up because of his influence on Petty. This made Petty start to view the body as a machine as well in which he wanted to dismantle.
Willis was known to keep casebooks on the different medical encounters he had with afflictions and diseases such as tuberculosis and arthritis. His diagnosis's were still thought of as imbalances though with corruption brought to the four humors. Willis did not have problems with diagnosing those types of diseases but seemed to have problems with neurological and psychological disorders. He would fall back on Galen to understand the many disorders he came across. He also found out about addictions, such as caffeine and memory problems in the case of Anne Greene.
Anne Greene had delivered a baby that was dead upon birth. She hid the baby because it was dead. They baby was found and she was convicted of murder. Her sentence was death. After considered dead, she was put in a coffin and given to Willis and Petty to do an autopsy, upon which they found her actually alive. Upon her revival, she had no recollection as to what happened to her. Willis and Petty determined that memory was just another machine in the body that could falter or fail.
Petty eventually went on to make an exact map of Ireland and established policy for the country, which is still used by governments today and known as statistics and economic policy. Willis went on to make his own church which became very popular. "A decade later he would found the science of neurology," (115).
Critique
Like all the previous posts regarding Carl Zimmer's book, I too found this chapter interesting. At first I felt slow reading it beacuse of the history background given, but once it started in on the scientists and their discoveries and contributions, I was hooked. It amazes me at how many things were discovered and invented and experimented upon in such a short period of time.
In one part of the chapter, I noticed how van Helmont mentioned something about reason not being the noblest gift of humans. He stated how he thought reason was actually a disease which distracted the soul. He said it really wasn't anything special to humans giving examples of wolves cornering a dog in its favorite sleeping spot or bees counting. He gave this all to the notion of being rational. I want to disagree with how van Helmont thought. I feel that we are born with certain instincts. A wolf cornering a dog or a bee counting is all instinct that is learned. They learn from their parents just as a baby learns how to communicate with different crys whether it needs to be changed or fed. I do feel that humans have reason. If we did not have reason, how would scientists, such as van Helmont, think of the things they did in order to have a progression in the sciences?
I loved the fact that Wilkins, Wren and Willis with their other virtuosi came together and tried to establish that science was within their reach along with attempting to create a universal language for all scientists. This made me excited for them and science. I feel that their main goal wasn't in trying to solve all the problems but in trying to make things less complicated that way all scientists knew what they were talking about. It may not be the same universal language us scientists used today, but I think they were on to something by attempting.
To continue with my amazement, I was very intrigued by the wide variety of diseases that Willis had "disovered" in his casebooks. All the way from simple things such as arthritis and kidney stones, to more serious cases like tuberculosis and physcological/neurological problems. It was pretty neat how he would go back and forth between using Galen and not using Galen in order to try to find "cures" for the diseases. Sometimes Willis could not account for Galen's medicine with the symptoms he encountered (104) then other times he would fall right back on Galen to understand the disorders he encountered (107).
Based on the discoveries made by Willis and his colleagues, I am anxious to see what the upcoming chapters will talk about since in a decade, Willis will have discovered the science of neurology.
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