Scientific American Article Summary

The article “Brain Stains” in the October issue of Scientific American was by far the best magazine article I have read. I had two opposite reactions to the article: shock and intrigue…

Shock: Sherri Storm opened the newspaper one February morning only to find a shocker of her own. The headline read, “Malpractice Lawsuit: Plaintiff tells horror of memories. Woman emotionally testifies that psychiatrist planted false recollections.” After reading the story about the woman in the article, Storm realized that she herself had been a victim of malpractice. The 200-plus personalities with which she had been diagnosed by her therapist, Kenneth Olson, had been nothing more than a figment of her imagination.

Like Storm, there are many others who underwent recovered-memory therapy that revealed sordid memories of a fictitious past. When recalling any of these made-up memories, one notices the resonating guided structure, suggesting that the therapist was instrumental in guiding the mind to formulate images of horrid events that fictitiously took place in one’s life.

Although Storm has realized that she does not suffer from Multiple Personality Disorder, she is still traumatized to this day. Seeing a strand of hair on her pizza triggered conjured memories of gagging and eating babies in a cult; Cigar smoke bring recollections of cigar burns and rapes by her Uncle; Even her nurturing parents were seen as criminals against her. She remains unemployed, and socially isolated.


Intrigue: Bad therapy seems to have altered the brain’s emotional circuitry in Storm and others like her, with lasting effects on memory and mental health. While this ‘brain stain’ can be reversed, it would take considerable effort.

The main problem with brain is that it does not have a selective process in information processing. Imagination or coerced memories like the ones mentioned earlier does not go through a screening process to be confirmed, or trashed. In an experiment done by Elizabeth F. Loftus and Jacqueline Pickrell (1995), families were contacted as asked information about their past to gather memories to construct a memory booklet. A false story about being lost in the mall at age 5 was also included. When family members were shown the book, they responded by recalling all of the memories, even that of the false story, providing details of the fictitious event.

Recovered-memory therapy is heavily relient on the notion that some memories are so unreliable that they are repressed by the mind in order to protect itself. On the contrary, Neurobiologist James L. McGaugh of U.C.I. has found that a key function of memory is the ability to recall threatening situations so that they (situations) may be avoided in the future.

Most people don’t realize that when they undergo different types of stress, especially in the case of Chronic Stress, physical changes take place in the brain. The neuronal complexity in three areas is affected: the medial prefrontal cortex (responsible for working memory and executive function), the hippocampus (responsible for learning, memory, and emotional processing), and the amygdale (involved in fear and intense emotions).

Scientific American article Summary

The Scientific American article “When the Eyes Play Ticks on the Ears” by Nikhil Swaminathan talks about the coupling of visual and auditory information in order to provide us with an integrated message. It specifically attributes the neurons of a structure called the “inferior collicus region” located in the midbrain of being responsible for “fooling” us when it comes to thrown voices. The inferior collicus region contains neurons that respond to both visual and auditory stimuli. However, it is also essential that both types of stimuli are like one another in order for them to be encoded similarly.
Swaminathan goes on to delineate an experiment carried out by Jennifer Groh and her colleagues at Duke university to substantiate this claim. The researchers used monkeys to analyze the response of approximately 180 neurons in the inferior collicus region through the placing of electrodes in the animals’ brains. The monkeys were placed in a dark chamber and the responses of their neurons to a light-emitting diode (LED) being switched on just before a “white noise” was played were assessed. It was determined that during the LED stimulus, the neurons in the inferior collicus region were activated. However, when the white noise was played, two out of three monkeys also indicated activity in the auditory region. These results imply a significant relationship or interaction between sensory pathways which can even be designated as being automatic.
I chose this article because it signifies the important relationship between the perception of an auditory stimulus and that of a visual stimulus. I wear glasses and I have noticed that my hearing tends to be less accurate during the times that I do not have my glasses on. This article helped me understand the significant influence that both forms of perception have on each other.

* Link to article: http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=when-the-eyes-play-tricks

* An example of the relationship between vision and hearing can be seen during the learning of a language. Here is a link deliniating this relationship: http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED003609&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED003609

The Scientific American Mind article “Freeing a Locked-In Mind” by Karen Schrock focuses on technological advancements that have revealed that vegetative patients may be able to communicate with the outside world. “Locked-in” minds refer to minds that are trapped in bodies that no longer respond to their mental control. In the fall of 2006 researchers in Britain announced that they were able to successfully image the brain of one of their vegetative patients and found that the patient was conscious and aware. According to lead researcher, Adrian Owen of the University of Cambridge, “We are now able to detect when somebody is consciously aware, when existing clinical methods have been unable to provide that information.” This new technology will allow patients to communicate without having to say or do anything. This “new technology” is the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) that shows which areas of the brain have the most activity during thought processing. FMRI imaging has been the first imaging technique to “look at the inner cognitive workings of patients who have disorders of consciousness.”

This article went on to discuss how cases like Terri Schiavo’s and many others can not easily improve, however, brain-damage prognosis is not always cut and dry. This is why this new technology will allow doctors to determine how much brain function a person has left thereby making a clear distinction between the three categories of consciousness: coma, vegetative, and minimally conscious. The fMRI has advanced over the last couple years so that researchers are capable of interpreting the data in 30 to 40 seconds compared to months. With this advancement “locked-in” patients will be able to “speak” with their own mind despite being verbally unresponsive. The researchers have been able to learn how to tell apart thought-only responses of “yes” or “no” in under a minute due to different thoughts activating various areas of the brain.

I chose this article because this past week in my comparative religious ethics course we discussed physician assisted suicide and forgoing treatment for patients. One of the cases we discussed was Terri Schiavo’s, which took place back in 2005. A political debate ensued when her parents challenged her husband’s decision to remove her feeding tube and allowed her to die. The doctors did not think she would recover and sided with her husband. From reading this article, if fMRI imaging was available then as it is now maybe Terri’s case would have turned out differently. It seems that there will be a future for patients in vegetative and comatose states. This article was extremely enjoyable and interesting to read. Definitely check it out!!!

Info on Terri Schiavo: http://www.terrisfight.org/mainlinks.php?table=main_terri_story&id=141

Scientific American Article Review

The article entitled "Taming Baby Rage: Why Are Kids So Angry?" was a very interesting one. Researchers stated that studies have shown that it may not be the cartoons which lead your children to hit or be rough with other children at school. Research is supporting the theology that our children are born with these intuitions and, through training, they learn to express those emotions/ feelings in a more positive way.

"...It's surprising that the idea that children and adolescents learn aggression from the media is still relevant," according to Richard Tremblay (a professor of pediatrics, psychiatry and psychology at the University of Montreal). He has been doing continuous research on 35, 000 Canadian children to find out what the root of their behavior is. So far, Tremblay has found out that the peak of children's violent behavior is around 18 months and it begins to tamper off between 2-5 years old when they learn manners and other mature ways to communicate their wants and needs better.

Tremblay and his team want to further look into what extent does gene expressions play a part into the aggressiveness of our children. He stated that “individuals that are chronically aggressive have…more genes that are not expressed. The fact that a gene can be silenced or the level of protein it encodes reduced is an indication that the problem is at a very basic level." This was a very interesting observation. Since studies done with animals show that an unfit environment (from day one) can hinder the child from learning that violence is wrong, they are further testing to see if, what is done while the baby is in the womb, can affect the children neurologically once it is born. Some possible factors, which could have an affect on the child (if they are done during pregnancy), are drinking, stress, poor nutrition, and smoking. Taking a closer look into these factors & their affect on the child can help for early detection and interventions.

I found this article very interesting since I am very fascinated by children and their neurological development (I guess that is the maternal instincts in me). So much work has been put in so far to obtain these results and, as more is found out, more questions arise. It is very fascinating how we once though that what are child watches on TV could be the root of malicious behavior but, now, we are seeing that it could be more than that...possibly even a combination of the too. I believe that many of our behaviors are natural and innate but I also think that nurture has a big part to play in it as well. They work together. To know that there is a possibility that are genes could play a role in our aggressive behavior is remarkable and worth looking into for future analysis.

Articles Related to the Subject:

Neurobiological determinants of violence
http://www.gnxp.com/MT2/archives/002591.html


TV Violence May Spur Aggression in Boys
http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=85006

Baby Bullies
http://www.sesameworkshop.org/parents/advice/article.php?contentId=90561

Reaction: Chapter 11 Blog

Chapter 11 was a very interesting yet sad chapter. This chapter is where Willis starts to fade into history rather than stand out for eternity (like individuals such as Darwin, Mendel, or Watson & Crick). He contributed so much to the world of science, and I share the sentiments of the other critiques. He was a great man and it is not justice that others will not know him for his greatness.

Sydenham was a person after my own heart. He did things according to how he felt they should be done and I was thoroughly amazed that he thought that way. So many before him were by the books and never went too far outside the box but not him. He was a realistic type of person and didn’t rely too much on the theoretical. He observed diseases and learned their habits/patterns so he could become a master of healing them. He believed that nature was sufficient in dealing with going against disease since “nature by itself determines disease".

Locke was a very rebellious soul and, when he began to question what was already being stated as truth, it made me so proud. I am one who always likes to go against the grain and try new things out. His courage to questions was very admirable. His analysis of how language was interpreted and spoken was insightful and remarkable in its own right.

Related Articles

Thomas Sydenham
http://www.nndb.com/people/344/000098050/
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/1989.html

John Locke
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Locke-Jo.html
http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/distance_arc/locke/locke-science-lec.html

Scientific American Mind Article

In the Scientific American Mind Article “Brain Pathway May Underlie Depression,” JR Minkel investigates the mystery behind the marker for depression. A neuroengineer and psychiatrist named Karl Deisseroth hypothesizes that the electrical chatter in the dentate gyrus contracts in depressed rats. The dentate gyru is found at the C-shaped region of the hippocampus. And so, to understand human depression, researchers performed an experiment on rats. The rats were induced with depression like symptoms. A blasting static noise was tested on the animal at unpredictable intervals for several weeks. The results showed that the stressed rats were unable to swim in a tank indicating their “feelings of hopelessness.” To observe further in their experiment, the researchers compared the rat’s brain activity between a depressed and normal rat. In this case, the rat’s brains were analyzed by extracting their brains in slices and then placed in voltage-sensitive dye with electrode to observe under a high-speed camera.










Source: http://www.brain.riken.jp/bsi-news/bsinews2/no2/issue2e.html

This figure is just to show an example of what the process would look like when a high-speed camera is used to observe hippocampus activity . "The activities in the hippocampal CA1 region using an ultrahigh-speed camera developed in Dr. Michinori Ichikawa's laboratory. This shows the activities after high-frequency stimulation was applied by modeling the learning process. Long-term potensiation phenomenon of the hippocampal CA1 region captured on potential-sensitive dyes using a high-speed camera."

The high-speed camera is mainly used to observe hippocampus activity. They found “a smaller aura of activity originating from the curved dentate gyrus than in normal rats.” In their previous research, they found that a depressed rat treated with fluoxetine (Prozac) experienced more rapid neurogenesis. In addition, “the range of electrical signals from their dentate gyri spread as far as in normal rats.” All in all, they learned that the hippocampal activity is involved in depressed behavior. However, they were not able to identify the origin of the problem within the hippocampus. And so, the causes of depression remained a mystery.

I found this article interesting because I have performed an experiment on rats in the past. It’s amazing how a small animal can be helpful in understanding human behavior. Yet, some remains a mystery to us when it comes to understanding how behavior is triggered in the brain and how it is processed. The brain is a very complex structure that often times it is difficult for researchers to identify where a specific behavior is triggered or originated from.

Related link:
Soluble oligomers of b amyloid (1-42) inhibit long-term potentiation but not long-term depression in rat dentate gyrus.

Scientific American Mind Article

In his article, “Can a Lack of Sleep Cause Psychiatric Disorders?”, Nikhil Swaminathan discusses the biopsychological implications of sleep deprivation. He describes a study conducted by Dr. Matthew Walker, a psychologist from the University of California, in which the brain activity of well-rested and sleep-deprived adults were monitored as they were shown a series of images that became progressively more disturbing. Primarily focusing on activity in the amygdala—the region of the brain that is responsible for emotional response—the investigators found that neurons in the sleep-deprived participants exhibited 60% increase in neuronal response due to transmission of impulses by five times as many than those of their well-rested contemporaries. Further investigation through fMRI analyses discovered than norepinephrine was being secreted by the activated neurons, thereby causing a fight-or-flight response.

Physiologically, the latter findings inhibit the activity of the medial prefrontal cortex, the region of the brain that regulates emotional responses and allows rational thought. This occurs as a result of sleep deprivation, and, thereby, accounts for the constant shift in moods within an individual. Harvard Medical School professor, Robert Stickgold, states that a relationship exists between sleep deprivation and certain psychiatric disorders, such as depression. Further studies will examine disturbances in different types of sleep, such as REM or slow-wave sleep.

I found this article particularly intriguing because, throughout the course of my college career, I have nights when I had the misfortune on receiving as little as one hour of sleep. Although I understand the relationship between the two factors, I think that perhaps there is a certain threshold of sleep deprivation before the amygdala begins to be overactivated.

The Forgotten Brain Emerges--Scientific American Mind Article

In an article from Scientific American Mind entitled "The Forgotten Brain Emerges," by Krebs, Huttmann and Steinhauser, it is found by many neuroscientists that glial cells are nearly as important to thinking as neurons. There are nine times as many glial cells in the gray matter of our brains as neurons. It was thought of for many years that glial only provided support for neurons in ways such as fighting pathogens, maintaining a good ion balance and insulation. But this is not true. Glial cells are apparently involved in all aspects of the brain's information processing.
As we all know, there are three main glial cell types: microglia, oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. Microglia act like an immune system for the brain whereas oligodendrocytes form myelin sheaths around the neuronal axons acting as insulation. The important glial cell in this article were the astrocytes, which are involved in a number of aspects of our brain's functioning.
Astrocytes supply neurons with nutrients from blood vessels, absorb neurtransmitters (NT) and make sure ion concentrations remain constan. Astrocytes are also known to "talk" to one another. In essence, the above characteristics of astrocytes are important in how glia affect of neurons communicate.
Though glia are important, they differ in how they conduct information. Neurons use electrical impulses (action potentials) to conduct information whereas astrocytes use chemical messages controlled by rising and falling Ca2+ concentrations. Though they used different ways to conduct information, they may use the same types of messenger molecules. Often, astrocytes will release the same NT's as neurons.
In this article, epilipsy was examined in order to find out how glia communicate. In epileptic episodes, neurons in one region of the brain suddenly fire in complete synchrony with only a few misfiring. Tissue from the hippocampus of epileptic patients were studied because the hippocampus is involved in the onset and spread of seizures. Thins sections of the hippocampus were removed and ion streams flowing through the cell membranes of single astrocytes were tracked. The activity of indivudual ion channels and NT receptros were then measured.
Non-epileptic brains have two types of astrocytes: glu T cells and glu R cells. glu T cells are completely lacking in patients in a certain form of epilepsy noted temporal lobe epilepsy. In healthy brains, though, these glu T cells absorb glutamate that has been released by neurons. This inhibits the prolonged stimulation of the neurons. Along with this glutamate absorption, glu T cells can also remove K+ ions from the intracellular space of neurons also helping to shut down neurons.
glu T cells are connected together by gap junctions. This helps them work together to remobved molecules and ions from neurons simultaneously. This further helps the brain from overactive transmission. In epileptic patients, with this lack of glu T cells, the rapid removal of messenger molecules and ions is absent and the substances instead collect around neurons which overstimulates them. Another consequence of glu T cell loss is that neurons become energy depleted. Healthy brains have glu T cells that absorb glucose and transform it into lactic acid which enables neurons to generate energy. This severly impairs the brain from receiving the supply of nutrients it needs.
On the otherhand, glu R cells have specialized receptors that a used for a variety of messenger substances, which also includes glutamate. Unlike glu T cells, glu R cells do not have gap junctions and thus do not have the ability to remove ions such as K+. Patients with epilepsy have glu R ceclls but K+ channels in their cell membranes is significantly lower compared to that of a healthy brain. Their operation is much slower.
It is still unknown as to whether the deficiency or changes in glia actually cause this type of epilepsy or is a consequence of it. The authors of this article state further research is needed which can go in the direction of looking into pathological problems in the brain that includes neuronal activity AND glial activity. A new understanding of glia must be developed.

Scientific American Mind Article

The Scientific American Mind article, “Can nurture save you from your own genes? Genes, environment and depression” introduced by David Dobbs speaks of a scientist’s study of examining two different gene variants and the power of each depending on whether a child is abused, nurtured, or both. The article, “Gene- Environment Interactions: When Nurture Wears a White Hat”, written by Charles Glatt describes the research of fellow scientists Joan Kaufman and Joel Gelernter Nicholas Fayed and colleagues ("Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor-5-HTTLPR Gene Interactions and Environmental Modifiers of Depression in Children”).

The ongoing debate of “Nature vs. Nurture” has many theologians, philosophers, and biologists pondering its influence on understanding who we are and what we embody. In the article by Kaufman and Gelernter, they propose that both nature and nurture contribute to who we are; mainly that both genetic factors and environmental factors play a key role in depression. Research has begun to identify genetic risk factors for certain behavioral traits. Some risk factors have been posed in court arguing that punishment for convicted felons should be lessened; the reason being that their genetic predisposition made them acquiesce and made them more prone to misbehave again.

In their paper, Kaufman, Gelernter, and colleagues found clear evidence of gene-environment interactions in the possibility for symptoms of depression. As an alternative to examining single genetic and single environmental factors, this study examines a number of interactions among two genetic factors (nature) and two environmental factors (nurture).

The first most accepted polymorphism (genetic difference between individuals) is in the regulatory region of the gene for the serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR or serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) transporter) polymorphism. This is one of the “nature” factors examined by Kaufman and colleagues. This appears to alter expression of the serotonin transporter molecule. This transporter molecule is also the target of many SSRIs (serotonin-selective reuptake inhibitors) or class of antidepressants.

The second polymorphism is the gene for brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). This is another of the “nature” factors examined by Kaufman and colleagues. This appears to promote the growth of new neurons; particularly brain growth and learning. However, this polymorphism in the BDNF gene alters the efficiency of secretion of BDNF. Many studies have shown that in both animals and humans, decreased levels of BDNF during stress causes depression while SSRIs act to normalize the levels of BDNF.

One “nurture” factor, or environment/experience, aspect looked at as a risk for depression was childhood abuse or maltreatment. In a study, 196 children were scored- 109 children where reports of abuse and/or neglect were present and 87 children (control) where no reports of abuse/maltreatment. Each child was scored for depressive-like symptoms; a high score indicated greater depression. These scores were then compared with combinations of the 5-HTTLPR and BDNF polymorphisms.

Results showed that children with one 5-HTTLPR polymorphism had a higher score only if there were records of childhood maltreatment. Overall, depression was more likely to develop in a child who was neglected and the specific 5-HTTLPR was present. They also found that a certain allele of the BDNF gene increased the effects of the 5-HTTLPR gene, making a child greater susceptible to depression if childhood maltreatment occurred.

Another “nurture” factor aspect looked at as a risk for depression was positive social support. Children were scored again but this time on whether they had high or low social support from the people within their lives. The results showed that having a high social support (nurturing) offset the effects of the genetic risk factors more or less.

The research mainly showed that “genes alone were not likely to make a child depressed, but maltreatment alone could.” In the controversial debate of nature vs. nurture, this study shows that in specific 5-HTTLPR and BDNF polymorphisms: “nurture beats nature.”

I found this article to be very interesting! I have always been interested in clinical research especially disease and disorders. I became interested in depression not too long ago mainly because it is a relatively unknown disorder and there is no single cause for depression. Throughout my research, I found that many factors play a role in depression such as genetics involving inheritability, the environment, medical conditions, life events, and certain thinking patterns that can affect an individual’s reaction to events and predispose them to depression. Most biological research seemed to focus on the role of dysregulation and neurotransmitters involved in depression. These chemicals assist in transmitting messages between nerve cells in the brain. Certain neurotransmitters as we know can regulate mood. When they are not available in sufficient quantities, the result can lead to depression. Overall, depression is a devastating, complex, and highly widespread disorder. It affects individuals of all ages and can be brought about by many different factors. BDNF plays an important role in the maintenance, growth, and the ultimate survival of the brain and peripheral neurons. Any defective regulation or change in the amount of BDNF produced could have severe implications and trigger the onset of depressive symptoms.

I found this article to be significant because throughout my study of BDNF in depression, I never came across studies involving the depression of children in relationship to maltreatment or abuse. This article also opened my eyes to the concept of “nature vs. nurture” and that not all disorders are purely genetic but can be due to one’s environment.

Interesting article:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&uid=16458264&cmd=showdetailview&indexed=google

THE NEUROLOGIST VANISHES

CHAPTER 11 SUMMARY


Willis has become legendary for his cures; however he has kept them secret from all of his colleagues. Willis set out to organize the remedies he has developed over the years into a single book. He creates a rational science of drugs, based on corpuscles and anatomy. Willis maintained a belief that physicians need to learn the “mechanical means of the working of medicines in our Bodies” in order to prevent the ignorant and vilest people from harming the physick. Rational therapist, as Willis called it was the last book he would write. Despite the shortcoming of rational therapeutic, it also displayed Willis as the best as a sharpened eyed anatomist and an extraordinarily observant physician. Willis and his assistant Edmund King made unprecedented study in the stomach, lungs and other organs. Willis approached his death as he had always hoped he would with his rational soul still in charged.

Locke came to Oxford in 1652, he showing none of the genius that his fellow students, however by the end of the decade he begin to transform himself from a dilettante to a natural philosopher. Locke earned a place in the Oxford circle carrying out experiment and later developed an expertise in botany. When Locke wasn’t carrying out medical research, he was speculating in the hidden works of the body. Locke believed that the inability to agree was brought on because people did not understand the nature of thought itself, which lead him to the notion of “imperfection of words.” Locke decided that he and his friends had to get past these simple obstacles of language and thought one in order to truly understand anything. He took on the task of starting an essay that he referred to as “incoherent parcels.” After formulating his essay Lockes’ perception the world changes giving it new life and clarity. Locke was most intrigued and influenced by a physician named Thomas Sydenham. In Sydenham’s company, Locke became convinced that all causes in medicine were beyond human understanding.

Sydenham was a school mate of Wills but they had little in common. Willis came from royalist stock while Sydenham grew up in a Puritan Dorset. Willis fought for Charles I, while Sydenham fought for Parliament. Like Willis Sydenham chose medicine but steered clear of Willis Oxford Circle. After leaveing Oxford to join his bothers in London, Sydenham began practicing medicine on the less fortunate. As Sydenham saw patents by the hundred he begin to see patterns. He noticed that clusters of symptoms took the same course through different people. Sydenham found that diseases such as malaria follow the same course no matter who it claimed. He found ways to distinguish fevers, building up lists of linked symptoms that separate one diseases from another. His huge practice allowed him to gauge how well different kinds of remedies worked.

Sydenham experiments with different types of treatments outraged other physicians, but Sydenham would not change his medicine. “It is my nature to think where others read, to ask less whether the world agrees with me than whether I agree with the truth; and to hold cheap the rumor and the applause of the multitude.”

Critique:

The Neurologist Vanishes is a complicated chapter because it ends one era while beginning another. Willis is now a well accomplished physician; however his life has come full circle. He has become the Galen of the time and now his ideas are be scrutinized upon. Willis is now the giant whom shoulders are being stood upon just as the other that came before him. However I am sadden to learn that Willis becomes a distant memory and never a legacy for all of his contributions in the scientific community.

Now we begin to learn about the old and new free thinking characters of the time. I most thoroughly enjoyed reading about their style of breaking the mold. It was very engaging to lean about Sydenhams against the grain approach to practicing medicine. I like the fact that he used the actuality of life in treating his patients in lieu of the theoretical. In spite of whom it inhibited, he was able to look at the disease and see its pattern. Sydenham just seemed like a no nonsense type of person who didn’t get caught up in the how or why of medicine. Instead he focused on the healing aspect whether it is natural or chemical. “Nature by itself determines diseases, and is of it herself sufficient in all things against them.”

Locke too is a radical thinker who begins to question the establishment. He ventures into this journey by analyzing how language is spoken and interpreted. This new path to enlightenment has able him to hear that all the past intellectual discussion has been bullshit. Locke can now see that no one really knows what the other is truly saying or what themselves are attempting to convey. This awakening is truly revolutionary maybe even treason. Locke’s new insight spirals into numerous essays on topics that are taboo for its time. I really like this about Locke because it makes me think of how good it feels when one is truly allowed to be expressive. In comparison to doing the opposite, which usually leave a deep sense of regret?

Information on Thomas Willis:

www.cerebromente.org.br/n06/historia/willis

Information on John Locke:

www.blupete.com/Literature/Biographies/Philosophy/Locke

www.oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/philosophers/locke

Information on Thomas Sydenham:

www.nndb.com/people/344/000098050/

www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1369015

Chapter 9 critique

I enjoyed Chapter 9 because it highlighted theaccomplishment of a woman. Although Anne Conway was afflicted by many unfortunate conditions, such as the bleeding from her jugular vein and her ingestion of mercury, she still rose to the occassion & produced lots of impressive works. Anne's ingestion of mercury to treat her migraines was ridiculous to me. The things considered treatments, back then, was interesting and very hazardous to their health. I agreed with the statement that Burd made when she discussed the mind over matter theory. One, I believe, can ignore the feeling of pain if they truly wanted to in certain circumstances. There are occurrences where people are fighting and they don't realize that they are injured and in pain until afterwards when they actally think about it. For a woman to have her work contribute to theology proposed by men like Willis, is truly amazing. Her works contributed to the continuously evolving theories about the human soul. She educated herself on ideas closely related to philosophy and gained the esteem of men from that field. That was impressive since women were not considered fit to be educated during that time period. The use of stray dogs for experimentation done by Willis disturbed me a little because I am an animal rights activist and I hate to hear about experiments done on animals (especially dogs) but I am glad to see that the procedure was successful and Willis did come up with a procedure for blood transfusion. It was interesting to read how his primative procedure of physically transferring blood from one animal to the next. We have progressed so much medically, for now, our techinique is so much more advanced. We put the blood in bags and transfer it to the patients via their veins. We, even, have blood drives so that we can have different types of blood for everyone in case of an emergency. Willis, as a person, has gained much respect from me due to his passion and determination for medicine. Despite his massive amounts of money, prestige, and wealth, he still wanted help those who were less fortunate than he was. Information on Anne Conway: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/conway/ Cartesian Dualism: http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Onto/OntoDerk.htm Timeline on Blood transfusion History: http://www.bloodbook.com/trans-history.html