Chapter 3 Synopsis and Critique

Chapter 3 Synopsis

Chapter 3 introduces one of the most prominent figures in the development of neurobiology, Thomas Willis. Although this particular chapter does not indicate exactly what Willis has contributed the science, Zimmer alludes to his potential for greatness by introducing him as an observant boy who recognizes the intrinsic cognitive capabilities of animals. He is introduced in light of the two paths he could have followed as an adult: science or religion. As with the previous chapter, these divisions were presented to illustrate their dichotomous relationship.

Prior to Willis’ birth, the Church of England underwent religious and political turmoil, alternating between the acceptance of Catholic traditions and Protestantism with each successive monarch. It was the reign of King Charles—who not only perceived himself as a “lieutenant to God,” but the rational soul, as well—in the 1600s that directly impacted Willis (45, 46). Lobbying for Roman Catholicism, Charles appointed his favorite bishop, William Laud, to the position of Chancellor of Oxford. There, Laud “had turned Oxford into a factory for producing loyal priests ready to preach the authority of church and king” by educating them with both new Copernican and old Ptolemaic sciences, with greater emphasis on the latter (47, 48). As a university pupil in the lowest level of the school’s caste system, Willis worked for a canon of Christ Church, Thomas Iles, and his wife. Through Mrs. Iles, a medical practitioner, the young man gained exposure to the work of alchemists.

Alchemy was an ancient science whose primary focus was to discover how one substance could be transformed into another. It evolved into a science that promised cures for “all kinds of ailments” (50). Despite its rejection from most European physicians, a small minority, including Philippus von Hohenheim—better known as Paracelsus—continued to practice it. As a physician, Paracelsus believed in “souls that governed…parts of the body” called archei (51). Thus, diseases were perceived as foreign souls invading the body, and individuals afflicted with specific ailments were treated according to which archeus was in distress. This was the first time that a physician recognized that maladies were caused by an external agent rather than punishment for sins. Paracelsus’ work was popularized postmortem and was published in books, such as London Pharmacopoeia. Unbeknownst to himself, his work, in conjunction with that of other alchemists, would greatly influence Willis in his future endeavors.



Chapter 3 Critique

I found Chapter 3 to be rather interesting. In using the Protestant Reformation as a prelude to Laud’s strict regulation of Oxford, Zimmer reinforces the predominance of the beliefs of the Church of England in secular society. This is seen in King Charles’ “ability” to cure scrofula. Known as the “royal touch,” this power was supposedly bestowed upon those that were appointed by God, which, in this case, was the king. What was interesting about this was that Charles made it illegal for even physicians to claim that they could cure this disease, thus strengthening the Church’s tight grasp on the public’s acquisition of scientific knowledge.

This was further illustrated in Laud’s control of Oxford’s program of study. Despite his emphasis on Ptolemaic science and Aristotelian philosophy, I found it surprising that he would include Copernicus in the curriculum altogether, especially since he was placed in its index of banned books in 1616 (28). Regardless of the mathematical proof provided by Galileo—who himself was excommunicated for his “heresy”—I cannot fathom as to why, or even when, this mild transition became acceptable in the Church.

On a completely different note, I found it intriguing that Paracelsus was the first physician to attribute sicknesses to external factors, despite the inaccuracy of his reasoning. Varying from the Church’s belief that sin was the cause of disease, his reasoning was understandable considering that the basis of alchemy did not stem from religion. For this same reason, it was understandable that alchemists opposed Galen, who attributed the liver’s vegetative soul with base emotions like pleasure and desire (15).