Chapter Summary
In 1660, Charles I came back into power bringing with him, old royalists determined to return English life to its 1640’s splendor. Bishops and priests also returned back to the churches, while the Archbishop Laud, who was executed for treason, was replaced by Gilbert Sheldon, who appeared as one of the Church’s strictest enforcers. All books and pamphlets were to be approved by the new bishop, and any anonymous pamphleteers were hunted down and thrown into Jail. Although the puritan hold over England was being loosened, bishops and priests did not feel safe. The Quakers and other fanatic sects romped throughout England defying parliament and causing trouble – even “offering to burn parts of the Bible they found offensive.” Strong measures were not taken against the unruly Quakers, mainly due to the higher priority given to another problem – the prospect of atheism in England.
While King Charles did not deny the existence of God, his court was far from pious – bringing in French customs of “perfume, face paint, and syphilis.” As a result, men imitated women in their ways of perfumed, colorful clothing, long periwigs, and face paint. Charles also reestablished himself as the spiritual leader of England by reverting to his old ritual of curing the King’s Evil, receiving thousands of people kneeling before him to receive his touch.
In the mean time, Thomas Willis continued with good fortune. He had earned himself a scientific reputation with his book and paracelsist drugs. For his loyalty, he was rewarded by a job – professor of natural philosophy at Oxford University, where he taught new theories from abroad, and discussed his own anti-Aristotelian ideas. Willis also delved deeply into research, dissecting heads and using the microscopes designed by Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to look at the structure and circuitry of the nerves, something that other anatomists had not attempted before. During this time, Willis and Richard Lower, a physician, were able to understand that blood travels throughout the body in a circular pathway and to all parts of the brain, through a series of experiments with arteries of humans and a famous case of a spaniel.
Willis also disproved theories by famous philosophers such as Descartes and Aristotle, and unlike others in history, he had evidence to prove his theory. When injecting dye in arteries leading up to the brain, there was no trace of it in the ventricles, thereby disproving Descartes’s theory that the soul resided in the ventricles. He also disproved Descartes’s claim that the Pineal gland was special to humans, as it is found in other species as well. By linking lung and heart function to different parts of the nervous system, Willis also disproved Aristotle’s theory of voluntary and involuntary movement. One revolutionary theory he introduced was the relocation of the soul. He gave all importance to the brain, and not the heart.
Willis and his friends had finished their explorations and wished to publish their new, concise findings about the nervous system. In order to help them in this endeavor, the Royal Society for Promoting Natural Science was established. This elite society was filled with Virtuosi of all walks of life and all fields of the sciences. Although King Charles supported them with a royal charter, the Royal society was reminded to “pay for it in a currency of amusement and hard labor (184).” The Virtuosi worked together on many natural investigations and also wished to inform the public of their research and findings by appointing Christopher Wren, who shifted his responsibilities to Robert Hooke, to put together an entire book of pictures explaining their work - Macrophagia. Willis, Hooke, and Wren also published Anatomy of a Brain - a trilogy of specific structure and composure of the brain and the nervous system.
Critique
I was quite excited about this chapter, because I felt as though Carl Zimmer was leading me through Thomas Willis’s thought process, as he was able to discover and prove the existence and importance of the nervous system in the human body. Just like Harvey, Willis was able to provide strong basis for his theories. I especially appreciated the simplicity in the experiments he conducted as evidence. For instance something as simple as a dye injected into one of the arteries leading to the brain, disproved the highly revered Ventricle theory, in which physicians and philosophers believed that the spirits resided in the Ventricles in the brain. Another intriguing discovery was the network of nerves all throughout the brain. Being a visual person, I tried to visualize Willis inject a dye into one of the dog’s carotid arteries and his surprise when seeing a vast circuitry of vessels appearing like “a curious quilted ball (176).” On the other hand, I noticed the difference in experimentation protocol between the two time periods – then and now. Willis ties up all but one artery leading to the brain in a spaniel, and observes the vitality of the dog. This is one thing I don’t think would be possible in this day and age.
I was excited to see Willis’s revolutionary discovery: replacing the heart with the brain as the “moral center of Christianity… [and the] king of the body (180).” I am always amazed when I come upon a discovery so crucial and colossal that the foundation of an entire belief system is threatened. When philosophers and physicians attributed all morality, judgment and emotion to the heart, it must have been quite derailing to hear that their theory had no truth at all. The church must have felt the same way when Galileo proclaimed that earth was in fact not the center of the Universe. One such stunning instance in my lifetime would be the declaration of Pluto losing its title of being a planet. When growing up with nine planets, and memorizing them in order, it was a little disheartening to find out that are in fact only eight in our galaxy. My friend had learned the planets via a common pneumonic device, of which she lamented its sudden uselessness – “My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine…” – nine what?
Carl Zimmer mentions on page 185 that the virtuosi in the Royal Society promised “to make God’s work clear and provide an antidote to fanaticism (185).” It is so rare in the scientific community for anyone to “make God’s work clear.” The Royal Society was able and willing to witness God’s work in the brain, and even a leg of a flea. The difference in a few centuries is quite astounding. That was a time of discovery, and despite the understanding of functions and processes in the body, all was attributed to a creator. In contrast, while the present time is still one of discovery, the very mention of a divine origin or creator is shunned.
On the other hand, I wonder whether virtuosi such as Willis were forced to take a Christian stand, for fear that they would be persecuted or that their findings would not be welcomed otherwise. Zimmer states that Willis maintained that The Anatomy of the Brain was not “the work of an atheist” perhaps for the sake of upholding his respectability (187). Perhaps there were many prominent figures hiding behind masks, in order to be accepted in society. There is no clear way of knowing, unless an autobiography or journal might mention otherwise.
In case you are interested, please see the following article reviewing a book on the Royal Society.
http://www.jstor.org/view/00211753/ap010311/01a00340/0?frame=noframe&userID=435c1661@loyola.edu/01cce440610050145691&dpi=3&config=jstor
Also, I found an interview with Carl Zimmer, who elaborates on Thomas Willis. If you are interested, do visit http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/mind/stories/s1101281.htm
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7 comments:
Like Looking for Angels, I was very excited about this chapter because we finally had the opportunity to read about Willis’ contribution to neurobiology. I share her fascination regarding the simplicity of the his experimental design, and I think it is interesting that Willis was able to integrate the methodologies of his predecessors, such as Wren and Harvey, to yield the successful discoveries of his own. It was interesting to see that the Ventricle theory was finally disproved. I think Willis made it a point to state that The Anatomy of the Brain was not the work of an atheist because he was aware of the scrutiny that past scientists have encountered regarding their loyalty to their faiths. Moreover, Willis had very strong religious convictions, and I think it would have been disheartening for him to receive such opposition from the Church. I agree with Looking for Angels when she says that we would not be able to conduct the same experiments today, especially with animals, due to the stringent policies that must be approved by the International Review Board (IRB).
I really enjoyed reading about the establishment of the Royal Society, which, incidentally, is still in existence. I liked that its members were able to set their religious differences aside in order to congregate and discuss the advancement of science in England and Europe, as a whole. An interesting point that Looking for Angels made was that modern society would be very reluctant—if not offended—if scientific discoveries were attributed to the work of a creator. I think this is because we are now more cognizant of other religions that do not necessarily believe in the same deity. Modern society’s concern with political correctness prevents us from attributing such things to one creator. In contrast, I think it was more plausible for the Royal Society—who was comprised of Catholics, Puritans, and Quakers—to do so because their faiths all believed in the existence of God (183).
Also, despite the general tendency of science to stray from the “old world” beliefs of Aristotle, I thought it was interesting that Willis was able to expand on the philosopher’s idea that the body was capable of voluntary and involuntary movements (180). This is now referred to as the autonomic and somatic branches of the nervous system.
For more information on:
1) Royal Society: http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=2176
2) International Review Board: http://www.nevadasciencefair.net/irb.pdf
3) Puritan beliefs: http://mb-soft.com/believe/txc/puritani.htm
4) Quaker beliefs: http://emes.quaker.eu.org/documents/files/meeting-the-spirit.html#1
5) Catholic beliefs: http://www.ancient-future.net/basics.html
6) Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems: http://www.ndrf.org/ans.htm
After reading this chapter, I felt the same excitement as Looking for Angels and Ynaling. I feel as though we have finally reached a climatic point in the book as Zimmer talks about Willis’ revelations. And like Looking for Angels I am also amazed how discoveries can threaten an entire a belief system. She gave a great example using Pluto and I must say I am a little disappointed that Pluto is not considered a planet anymore too.
Anyhow, the revelations that Willis brought to light during the 1600’s were so monumental that they questioned people’s perspectives on the brain’s function. I thought it was interesting that after all those years of believing in the Ventricle theory that Willis was able to disprove it using dye. Finally someone proved that the soul is not present in the ventricles. And this contributes to Willis giving more importance to the brain not the heart.
Like Looking for Angels, I appreciated the Virtuosi’s promise to “make God’s work clear” in their scientific studies. I find it refreshing that scientists then were able to attribute their work to God’s purpose and I think it reflects not only their passion for scientific discovery but also their commitment to their religious beliefs. I agree with Looking for Angels that attributions to God today are fewer than during Willis’s time. However, a modern-day scientist that comes to mind is Francis S. Collins, who is the director of the Human Genome Project. Collin’s believes that there is a co-relationship between God and science, and accredits God to his scientific discoveries.
This is a CNN article on Francis S. Collins and why as a scientist he believes in God. I just thought this was interesting:
http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/04/03/collins.commentary/index.html
Chapter 8 seemed to really begin the story to Soul Made Flesh. Although I was fascinated by all the experiments and beliefs prior to, the focus on the brain in this chapter begins to uncover the story even further.
I found it rather interesting that Willis, “ignoring his brother-in-laws rules… described new theories from abroad, the latest work emerging from his circle, and his own starkly anti-Aristotelian ideas on fevers and the body’s chemistry” (173-174). Even more, “if a Puritan had been standing in the hall delivering Willis’s lectures, he might have been dragged out, but Willis was a hero of the Restoration, and so he could get away with troubling talk” (174). However, I do not feel that Willis could get away with talk of atheism and unreligious talk. This is why I agree with Looking for Angels when she says that virtuosi such as Willis were forced to take a Christian stand, for fear that they would be persecuted or that their findings would not be welcomed otherwise. When Willis maintained his work not to be “the work of an atheist” he did so out of upholding his respectability. “Even when Willis filled Beam Hall with corpses, it remained his personal church” (187). Willis was a powerful man during this time but I do not feel he was so powerful that she could disregard the Creator and wrongfully commit a sin such as this.
“For years Willis had pondered the brain, its role in the body, and its function, imaging it as a sort of alembic, into which spirits rose from the blood. Some of his ideas made so much sense to him that he included them in his lectures, but when he heard himself describe them, he realized how flimsy they actually were” (174). I feel that Willis was no different than you or I in the sense that most of the time one may think they fully grasp a concept, but the degree to which one grasps it is not realized until they hear themselves explaining it or trying to explain it to others.
I found it ironic that “earlier anatomists had been far more interested in the ventricles than the brain itself…[and when] Willis looked at the ventricles, he saw nothing special” (175). I also agree with Looking for Angels, when she says that she appreciated the simplicity in the experiments Willis conducted as evidence proving the existence and importance of the nervous system in the human body. The experiments involving the carotid arteries were very interesting but it surprised me that the dog survived the surgery because infection can occur so easily. It helps me recall that even the simplest experiments executed could be of aid when trying to understand a problem/concept (for example, Lorenzo’s Oil).
I, too, was excited to see Willis’ revolutionary discovery: replacing the heart with the brain as the “moral center of Christianity…[and the] king of the body” (180). I was amazed that Willis “created what he called “neurologie,” a doctrine of the nerves” (182). I never knew that “the ingenious loop of arteries that supplied the brain became known as the Circle of Willis, while Wren’s drawings proved so accurate that they were still being reproduced in textbooks in the twentieth century” (186-187). Fascinating!
Information on the Circle of Willis:
http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=9145
Christopher Wren and one of his drawings of the brain:
http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1567.htm
Information on Scientific Societies, including the Royal Society:
https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/NatureandArtifice/lecture12.html
I believe Chapter 8 is probably the most significant chapter we have read so far as it brings together a number of independent discoveries and events which culminate in Willis discerning the importance of the brain as an individual organ. I also found it fascinating that Willis was the one responsible for elucidating the different structures of the brain. Similar to Looking for Angels, I marveled at the simplistic nature of many of the experiments performed and the valuable discoveries they led to. I agree that these forms of experiments are probably not as feasible today as they once were.
It was definitely exciting to finally read about the brain being given its rightful share of attention. However, I agree with Looking for Angels that it must have been offensive and disturbing to witness one’s believe system shattered. Hence, I admire Willis for taking the stand he did in proclaiming the importance of the brain.
In concordance with Looking for Angels, I too see a distinct discrepancy between the importance God was given during the great discoveries of Willis time and present discoveries being attributed to God's influence. However, I agree with Ynailing that this clear divergence may be attributed to the fact that scientists and philosophers are becoming more and more aware of belief systems that do not follow those advocated by Christianity. This makes it increasingly difficult to include the influence of God in science. Which God(s) do we include and to what extent? Also, is this really a bad outlook to have?
I also think that it is safe to assume that the religious climate of Willis' time may have placed undue restrictions on his work and publications.
* For more information on Willis’ “Circle in the Brain” visit:
http://64.233.167.104/search?q=cache:WzO1By
JXkrYJ:www.neuroscienceforum.org.np/20r.pd
f+Thomas+Willis+brain&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=3&gl=us
* Information of Willis’ contributions to neurology:
http://science.jrank.org/pages/10242
/Mind-Thomas-Willis-Birth-Neurology.html
I agree with Looking for Angels when she states how excited she was about this chapter in that Zimmer explained Willis' thought process in his discoveries about the brain. I, too, was amazed at the simplicity of his experiments. It seems as if he used his common sense to explore the brain and nervous systems. In conjunction with the simple dye injected into the brain, I also like the simple experiments he performed with the dogs.
One thing Looking for Angels did not mention was how Willis disproved Descartes' claim that the soul resided in the heart. He found it really does reside in the brain because of how everything was controlled by the brain. Along with disproving Descartes' claim about the soul, he also disproved Aristotle's theory about voluntary and involuntary movement. He showed this, again, using a dog and tying off certain arteries to the heart. The dog died almost instantly because of the blood build up in the heart. I thought this experiment was fascinating.
I was interested to know, along with Looking for Angels, that though these men, the virtuosi in the Royal Society, were scientists and looking for answers to simple things in life, they still wanted to make God's work clear. I feel that because they kept their faith in God, they were able to make these astounding discoveries.
Brain and movement:
http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_06/d_06_cr/d_06_cr_mou/d_06_cr_mou.html
the brain:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain
the Royal Society:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society
I agree with Looking for Angels that this chapter was exciting to read. I was also intrigue at how Willis performed a series of steps from simple dye injected into the brain of a dog. Performing such simple techniques still required him to carefully tie off certain arties to the heart of a dog. This must have been fascinating for him to witness at how blood circulates around the arteries of dog, and at the same time, this helped him make connections to our own. That is, when blood builds up in artery this caused the dog to died almost instantly, and so knowing this he would identify the cause for a heart attack.
I, too agree with everyone that the scientists back then were able to attribute their work to God’s purpose. This goes to show that it gave them the strength they needed to accomplish their work for the good. At the same time, knowing that God will be there to help them spiritually showed not only their passion for scientific discovery but also their faith in God. I agree with Faith2112 that you don’t see much of today’s scientists that have a strong belief in God.
Related Links:
Thomas Willis and the background to Cerebri Anatome
http://gr4an4te8p.scholar.serialssolutions.com/?sid=google&auinit=JPB&aulast=O%27Connor&atitle=Thomas+Willis+and+the+background+to+Cerebri+Anatome&id=pmid:12612118
The Control of the Human Brain Circulation: Ideas, Ancient, and Modern
http://gr4an4te8p.scholar.serialssolutions.com/?sid=google&auinit=F&aulast=Password&atitle=The+Control+of+the+Human+Brain+Circulation:+Ideas,+Ancient+and+Modern&id=doi:10.1034/j.1600-0773.2003.920405.x
I have to agree with looking for angels on the fact that Carl Zimmer did a good job in conveying the Thomas Willis experience. However when it comes to the more meaty matters as to what was going on at the time of all these discoveries, was bit voided by my fellow critique. Clearly there is big mixture of church and state or should I say church and science. During that particular day and age it is not taking kindly to think outside of the box because that could entail one being impaled. For that time period Thomas Willis is an old man at age 39 and he has witnessed the harshness of war, so yes he is operating within the constraints of the ruling Christian church guidelines. Despite the fact that his scientific discoveries shows so some many truths, if it goes against what society believes one better protect their neck first. Since Thomas Willis knew this all too well he had to tread those water lightly so that he did offend when revealing his discovers.
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